There are two ways in which religion can be seen as a conservative force;
- It can be seen as conservative as in 'traditional'; religion defends and upholds traditional moral views, customs and institutions. For example, conservative religious values often oppose social changes such as abortion, divorce and freedom of sexuality.
- It is also conservative because it preserves or maintains things as they are. This stabilises society and prevents a change in the status quo.
Religion is a NEGATIVE conservative force
There is plenty of evidence to support the Neo-Marxist view of religion but:
Religion has also successfully acted as a force against Communism.
E.g.
In 1990s Poland, the ruling Communist party was overthrown by free trade unions and the Roman Catholic Church, and replaced by a Western Democracy.
Although slavery was abolished in 1865, black people were still denied many of the same political and legal freedoms that were available to white people in the Southern States of the USA.
In many of these states, segregation occured; this meant that black people were not allowed to share amenities such as shops, public transport and public toilets. Inter-racial marriage and education was forbidden by law and black people had few opportunities to cast a vote.
The sociologist Bruce suggested that religion provided the foundations on which the movement stood; he argues that by using Christian values that were common to both black and white people, the CRM was able to shame white people into awarding equality to their black counterparts. Therefore, the churches not only provided sanctuary for black people from racial prejudice, but gave them a platform from which to deliver their message of equality. He suggests that in this context, religious values act as ideological resources; from religious ideals the protesters were able to draw support and motivation as well as a legitimate explanation for their actions.
Bruce suggests that there are several ways in which religion can support social protest and facilitate change. These are;
- Practising morality; Members of the black clergy highlighted and utilised the hypocrisy of their white counterparts by demonstrating the ways in which they encouraged racial segregation in light of the principle of 'loving thy neighbour'.
- Rallying and encouraging dissent; religious values and rituals provided centrepoints from which protesters could demonstrate. An example of this is the funeral of Martin Luther King Jr; the ceremony provided a strong focal point for rallying protesters.
- Providing common ground, or 'moral brokering'; The church was respected by both sides of the argument, and therefore may act as a stronger agent of social change than politics.
- Mobilising and encouraging public opinion; Rallying and demonstration by the black churches played a vital role in the desegregation of American society.
Religion as a...
Classic Study: Friedrich Engels (1957)
Engels recognised that religion did not always act as a conservative force that purely served the interests of the ruling classes.
He believed that the origin of religion was among the oppressed, and that it developed to help them to cope with exploitation.
By uniting the oppressed groups, and giving them a shared set of beliefs, he argued that religion could eventually become a radical force.
He uses the example of early Christian sects who were in opposition to Roman rule; their religion became a source of resistance and therefore a force for social change.
Evaluation of Neo-Marxism
Evaluation of Weber
- Marx would argue that material factors are the main contributors to the rise of Capitalism, whereas Weber would place prominence on both material and cultural factors. In Weber's view, the beliefs and values of Calvinism contributed majorly to the formation of Capiltalist societies.
- Marxists such as Kautsky therefore argue that Weber overestimates the importance of cultural factors (ideas) to the development of Capitalism, and suggests that Capitalism actually preceded Calvinism.
- Tawney (1926) also disagrees with Weber and argues that technological change was the main influence upon the development of Capitalist society. In addition, he suggests that the bourgeoisie later adopted Calvinist values to legitimate their position in society, rather than to aid it.
- Capitalism did not immediately follow in every country with a Calvinist population. For example, Scotland had a large Calvinist population and yet did not quickly develop a Capitalist system. Marshall, however argues that this is because Scotland lacked the material resources and skilled labour necessary to aid such development. This therefore lends support to Weber's view that both cultural and material factors are needed in order to develop a successful Capitalist system.
- Others argue that Calvinists only became successful Capitalists because the law prevented them from pursuing any alternative. Like Jewish people in Eastern Europe, they were prevented from entering political office and many other professions, and so turned to business. However, Weberians point out that many other social groups were excluded in this way and yet did not become successful Capitalists.
Hinduism and Confucianism
Weber argues that although some countries had higher levels of economic development than Northern Europe at the time, they still failed to develop Capitalist social systems. In countries such as India and China, he argues that this lack of development is due to the absence of a belief system such as Calvinism.
Calvinists led ascetic lifestyles and practised self discipline and hard work, whilst shunning luxury and idleness.
Although Hinduism is an ascetic religion, it is concerned with the spiritual world rather than the one in which we live. Therefore, unlike Calvinism it did not inspire economic development. Confucianism also failed do so: like Calvinism, it focused on the material world, but did not value asceticism. Therefore, Calvinism is unique in the sense that it combines asceticism with an orientation of values towards this world.
This performed two main functions:
- It solved their 'salvation panic'. the growth of their wealth was a sign of God's favour and therefore showed that they had achieved salvation. (This contradicts their original doctrines about God's will and predestination.)
- Calvinism brought about a new age of Capitalism; by allowing their wealth to accumulate, and by investing in business as a means of gaining more wealth, Calvinists demonstrated and reinforced the spirit of modern Capitalism.
Calvinist religion holds several key principles:
Benjamin Franklin was a Calvinist...
"Lose no time; be always employed in something useful."
Predestination: God predetermines which individuals would be saved, and which would be not. Therefore, unlike in Catholicism, performance of certain deeds( such as seeking penance and pilgrimage) could not alter God's decision.
Divine Transcendence: God is so above the mortal world that his will can not be truly known, not even by priests. This created a 'salvation panic.'
Ascetism: This involved abstinence and the rejection of luxury. Calvinists led very disciplined lifestyles.
Vocationalism or 'Having a Calling': Calvinists saw work as a religious duty. They therefore suggested that having a calling referred to constant work in a single occupation.
Weber: Religion as a force for change
Weber argues that the values of Calvinism (a form of Protestantism) contributed to major social change in Northern Europe during the 16th and 17th centuries. He suggests that Calvinism enabled the emergence of modern Capitalism.
Weber suggests that although many past societies were based on Capitalism, modern Capitalist society is unique because it focuses on pursuit of profit, rather than thoughtless consumption. He argues that this 'spirit of Capitalism' is similar to beliefs and values that are held by Calvinists.
Neo-Marxism
Otto Maduro: Liberation Theology
Liberation Theology: Explained
LT interprets Christianity as being on the side of oppressed groups, such as the poor and exploited. It argues that power, wealth and land should be redistributed in order to reduce the gap of privilege between the rich and the poor.
Maduro argues that the example of Liberation Theology demonstrates religion's role in social change. Until recently, the Catholic Church had acted to preserve the interests of the right wing government and of the richer classes; they now choose to lend their support to trade unions, oppressed groups and opposing political parties.
Interview with Ernesto Cardenal on Radical Social Change
Religion and...
Group
Member
Rosa Parks
In 1955, Rosa Parks was arrested for refusing to give up her seat to a white person whilst travelling on a bus in Montgomery, Alabama.
In response to this, black people boycotted the bus service for over a year as an act of defiance. the Montgomery bus boycott became one of the most significant events to precede the Civil Rights Movement.
The Civil Rights Movement
The New Christian Right
Malcolm X
Civil Rights Timeline
1957
1955
1954
1960s
1948
President Truman signs an order declaring that people may join the army and share opportunities regardless of ethnicity or background.
"There shall be equality of treatment and opportunity for all persons in the armed services without regard to race, color, religion, or national origin."
Executive order 9981
1950s
Member
1940s
Member
Bruce suggests that the black civil rights movement of the 50s and 60s was an example of a religiously motivated protest for social change.
Martin Luther King Jr
(cc) photo by theaucitron on Flickr
Member
(cc) photo by theaucitron on Flickr
Many sociologists argue that, rather than conserving society's values, religion can actually be a source of, and inspiration for, social change.
Bruce is interested in the relationship between religion and social change. He uses the examples of The Civil Rights Movement and the New Christian Right to demonstrate the nature of religion as a form of social protest.
...Social Protest
...Radical Force
Religion as a...
Conservative values of religion:
Functionalism
Most religions hold very traditional beliefs about moral issues, and tend to oppose values that would allow for freedom of sexuality and choice. For example, the Catholic Church opposes divorce, abortion and contraception, as well as homosexual behaviour and gay marriage.
Most other religions also place importance upon traditional family values and favour patriarchal domestic division of labour. For example, the idea that men should be at the head of the family is prevalent in the Church of England marriage service. Males must "love" and "honour" whilst, until 1966 women had to "love, honour and OBEY." These values also exist in Non-Christian religions; e.g. Hinduism values male authority and the practise of arranged marriage.
- Religion maintains social stability and prevents the breakdown of society through the value consensus. By ensuring that everyone shares the same set of norms and values, religion promotes solidarity and community and therefore prevents disintegration.
- The value consensus also prevents social collapse by encouraging individuals to consider the consequences of their actions before pursuing their own selfish desires. It also helps them to deal with pressures and problems that may otherwise disrupt society.
- Therefore, for Functionalists, religion fulfills a POSITIVE role in society.
Marxism
Feminism
Marxists argue that religion conserves inequality, and therefore prevents social change. This is because it legitimates exploitation and creates a false consciousness (ideology that disguises the true nature of conditions.) Therefore, rebellion is prevented, and Capitalist society is maintained.
Religion is a conservative force because it legitimates patriarchy and maintains women's lower positions in both the family and in wider society.
Religion and Social Change
...conservative force