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Herschel focused on providing her brother with the support he needed. She systematically collected data and trained herself in geometry, learned formulas and logarithmic tables, and gained an understanding of the relationship of sidereal time (time measured by means of the stars) to solar time. Her record keeping was meticulous and systematic. The numerical calculations and reductions, which saved her brother precious time, were all done without error, and the volume of her work was enormous.

When Herschel was not engaged in other tasks, she too searched the night skies using a small Newtonian reflector. To her credit, in early 1783, Herschel discovered the Andromeda and Cetus nebulae. By year's end, she had discovered 14 additional nebulae. As a reward, William presented her with a new Newtonian sweeper of 27 inches, with a focal length of 30. Herschel was also the first woman to discover a comet. Between 1789 and 1797 she had discovered another seven comets.

Herschel calculated and cataloged nearly 2,500 nebulae.

1788

Joseph Lagrange

Lagrangian mechanics is mathematically equivalent to the usual Newtonian approach of "apply forces to things and see how they move." Instead of examining the forces on a body directly, it looks at the kinetic and potential energies of a system of objects. This approach simplifies many complicated problems, including things like waves in continuous media and orbital mechanics.

1797

Henry Cavendish

The torsion balance experiment

of Henry Cavendish who in 1797

was the first to experimentally

measure the gravitational

constant G.

1798

Benjamin Thompson a.k.a. Count Rumford (1753-1814)

The apparatus used to measure G to record high precision. The device, about two feet across, measures the attractiveness between a hanging plate (hidden inside the cylinder) and several spheres which rotate about the cylinder.

no mass change after heat transfer

cannons firing blanks get hotter than cannons firing cannonballs

"Heat is a form of motion."

no mass change after heat transfer

work done boring cannons could boil water (frictional heating)

1784

work boring cannons could boil water (it was thought that chopping up matter released caloric, but Rumford pointed out that more work equals more heat, whereas caloric would be finite in amount)

Q=mcp T

Benjamin Thompson (Count Rumford) demonstrates that energy transferred as heat results from mechanical processes, rather than the release of caloric, the heat fluid that has been widely believed to exist in all substances.

Pierre-Simon Laplace's equation

In mathematics, a partial differential equation whose solutions (harmonic functions) are useful in investigating physical problems in three dimensions involving gravitational, electrical, and magnetic fields, and certain types of fluid motion. Named for Pierre-Simon Laplace, the equation states that the sum of the second partial derivatives (the Laplace operator, or Laplacian) of an unknown function is zero. It can apply to functions of two or three variables, and can be written in terms of a differential operator as ΔF = 0, where Δ is the Laplace operator.

(acoustics)

An equation for the speedcof sound in a gas; it may be writtenc= (p/), wherepis the pressure, is the density, and is the ratio of specific heats.

(mathematics)

The partial differential equation which states that the sum of all the nonmixed second partial derivatives equals 0; the potential functions of many physical systems satisfy this equation.

1785

Charles-Augustin de Coulomb formulated his law as a consequence of his efforts to study the law of electrical repulsions put forward by English scientist Joseph Priestley. In the process, he devised sensitive apparatus to evaluate the electrical forces related to the Priestley’s law. Coulomb issued out his theories in 1785–89.He also developed the inverse square law of attraction and repulsion of unlike and like magnetic poles. This laid out the foundation for the mathematical theory of magnetic forces formulated by French mathematician Siméon-Denis Poisson. Coulomb extensively worked on friction of machinery, the elasticity of metal and silk fibres and windmills. The coulomb, SI unit of electric charge, was named after him.

Charles Augustin de Coulomb published the results of experiments that will systematically and conclusively prove the inverse-square law for electric force. The law has been suggested for over 30 years by other scientists, such as Daniel Bernoulli, Joseph Priestly, and Henry Cavendish.

1800

1779

Coulomb friction is a simplified quantification of

the friction force that exists between two dry

surfaces in contact with each other. All friction

calculations are approximations, and this

measurement, which was developed in 1785

by Charles-Augustin de Coulomb as a refinement

of Leonardo da Vinci's classical model, is

dependent only on the fundamental principles

of motion. It assumes that the contact surfaces

are fairly uniform and that the coefficient

of friction that must be overcome for motion

to begin is well-established for the materials

in contact. It also accounts for the normal

force involving gravitational pull, whether

in direct horizontal movement to the normal

force or at a vectored incline.

Felectric=Kc(q1+q2)/(r^2)

Count Alessandro Giuseppe Antonio Anastasio Volta was the Italian physicist who built the first electrochemical battery. He first gained fame across Europe in 1775 with his electrophorus, a charge-generating machine he built while teaching physics in his hometown of Como. He was appointed to the University of Pavia in 1779, where he continued his work with static electricity and built a number of gadgets. Volta's debate with anatomist Luigi Galvani about the nature of electricity in organic tissue (what Galvani called "animal electricity") caused him to experiment with metal plates, and in 1800 he succeeded in creating a sustained flow of electricity with his "voltaic pile," a stack of metal plates in a salt solution. The invention made Volta even more famous and he was called to France by Napoleon in 1801 to receive the first of many honors and decorations. (Napoleon made him Count Volta in 1810.) The unit of measurement of electromotive force is called the volt in his honor and was adopted internationally in 1881

A black hole is a volume of space where gravity is so strong that nothing, not even light, can escape from it. This astonishing idea was first announced in 1783 by John Michell, an English country parson. Although he was one of the most brilliant and original scientists of his time, Michell remains virtually unknown today, in part because he did little to develop and promote his own path-breaking ideas.

1783

The range of his scientific achievements is impressive.

In 1750, Michell showed that the magnetic force

exerted by each pole of a magnet decreases with the square

of the distance. After the catastrophic Lisbon earthquake of 1755, he wrote a book that helped establish seismology as

a science. Michell suggested that earthquakes spread out

as waves through the solid Earth and are related to the

offsets in geological strata now called faults. This work earned him election in 1760 to the Royal Society, an organization of leading scientists.

Michell was born in 1724 and studied at Cambridge University, where he later taught Hebrew, Greek, mathematics, and geology. No portrait of Michell exists, but he was described as “a little short man, of black complexion, and fat.” He became rector of Thornhill, near Leeds, where he did most of his important work. Michell had numerous scientific visitors at Leeds, including Benjamin Franklin, the chemist Joseph Priestley (who discovered oxygen), and the physicist Henry Cavendish (who discovered hydrogen).

PHYSICS

1772

Caroline Herschel, sister of William Herschel, joins her brother in England She complies the most comprehensive star catalog of the era, and discovers several nebulae.

Herschel aided her brother in his work

Caroline Herschel (1750-1848) is noted for her scientific annals in astronomy more than for her mathematical knowledge. Yet, while her accomplishments were heralded in astronomy, Herschel deserves recognition in both fields. She never received formal mathematical training, which only serves to accent the dimension of her accomplishments and determination.

1771

Works Cited

http://www.codecheck.com/cc/BenAndTheKite.html

http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Caroline_Lucretia_Herschel.aspx

http://www.articlesbase.com/science-articles/william-herschel-and-the-biggest-telescope-of-the-18th-century-477973.html

http://www.maglevhighways.com/history.html

1750-1800

http://www.st-v-sw.net/Obsidian/Martin/structur.htm

http://www.physicstoday.org/resource/1/phtoad/v65/i2/p40_s1?bypassSSO=1

1767

http://russiapedia.rt.com/prominent-russians/science-and-technology/mikhail-lomonosov/

Luigi Galvani (AD 1737-1798), Italian physician and anatamy professor in Bologna, was dissecting a frog in his laboratoy on a table near an electric machine generating sparks. He noticed that the frog leg jumped when a metal scalpel touched a nerve. Through many years of experimentation, he concluded that within the frog (and all animals) there was electrical nerve fluid that reacted to a completed electrical circuit and caused the muscles of even a dead frog to contract.

http://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/201204/physicshistory.cfm

http://www.gracesguide.co.uk/Joseph_Priestley

http://itp.nyu.edu/~ndl5/electricity/pages/galvani.html

http://www.famousscientists.org/charles-augustin-de-coulomb/

Joseph Priestly

http://www.wisegeek.org/what-is-coulomb-friction.htm

His insistence on "animal electricity" and not metallic or atmospheric electricity was that while he could certainly make the frog legs jump when in contact with 2 metals and also during thunderstorms, there were times when the frog legs contracted on perfectly clear days without a complete arc of two metals. This stirred up quite a controversy with Galvani on one side and Allesandro Volta on the other in support of metalic electricity.

http://www.amnh.org/education/resources/rfl/web/essaybooks/cosmic/cs_michell.html

http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Laplace's+equation

http://www.worldforge.org/project/newsletters/May2002/LMMS_index

http://www.aip.org/png/html/newgrav.html

http://physics.info/thermo-first/

http://www.who2.com/bio/alessandro-volta

Based on experiments with charged spheres, Priestley was also the first to propose that electrical force followed an inverse-square law, similar to Newton's law of universal gravitation. However, he did not generalize or elaborate on this, and the general law was enunciated by French physicist Charles Augustin de Coulomb in the 1780s

1757

William Herschel's reflecting telescope

He built the largest telescope of his time

His largest telescope was larger than a house, and while it was quite a remarkable instrument, it was cumbersome to use so he used a smaller telescope that was only twenty feet long for most of his serious discoveries and observations.

He discovered that most double stars were not optical doubles but actual binary stars that revolved around each other. This was significant because it was the first proof that Newton's law of gravitation applies to objects outside our solar system.

A German musician, William Herschel emigrates to England to avoid fighting in the Seven Year's War. Over the next 60 years, he pursues astronomy, constructing the largest reflecting telescopes of the era and discovering new objects, such as binary stars and the planet Uranus.

He discovered a new planet (Uranus) in 1781

1761

Black’s attention was drawn to the latent heat puzzle by an observation on supercooled water, made by physicist Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit, [of the Fahrenheit temperature scale.] Fahrenheit reported the now well-known fact that water can be supercooled, or chilled below the freezing point, without turning to ice. When shaken, however, the supercooled water turns instantly to ice, and the temperature rises to the freezing point.

Black meditated on Fahrenheit’s experiment, and on his own observations of the slow melting of ice. Taken together, the two suggested that a large quantity of heat was absorbed as ice melts, and a corresponding quantity released by the freezing of water. Starting from this simple insight, he soon realized that a form of heat must exist that mysteriously disappears and reappears as water changes phases. Black based his reasoning in part on the fact that something expected to happen did not. [Sherlock Holmes used similar logic to solve a puzzling case by noting that a dog at the crime scene had not barked, though it was expected to.]

Joseph Black

1752

Benjamin Franklin performed the dangerous "kite experiment", in which he demonstrates that lightning consists of electricity performed earlier in the century by describing electricity as having positive and negative charges.

Benjamin Franklin testing his experiment

Benjamin Franklin's wildly dangerous kite experiment has grown into an American legend. Almost everyone has heard of Franklin flying a kite with a key in an electrical storm, but few of us actually understand how the experiment works. Ben hypothesized that lightning is an electrical phenomenon, and that the electrical effect of lightning might be transferable to another object and cause an effect that could be recognized as electricity. He set out to prove it in an experiment.

With the help of his son, William, they attached his kite to a silk string, tying an iron key at the other end. Next, they tied a thin metal wire from the key and inserted the wire into a Leyden jar, a container for storing an electrical charge. Finally, as the sky darkened and a thunderstorm approached, they attached a silk ribbon to the key. Holding onto the kite by the silk ribbon, Ben flew the kite and once it was aloft, he retreated into a barn so that he would not get wet. The thunder storm cloud passed over Franklin's kite, whereupon the negative charges in the cloud passed onto his kite, down the wet silk string, to the key, and into the jar. Ben however, was unaffected by the negative charges because he was holding the dry silk ribbon, insulating him from the charges on the key. When he moved his free hand near the iron key, he received a shock. Why? Because the negative charges in the key were so strongly attracted to the positive charges in his body, a spark jumped from the key to his hand. Franklin's experiment successfully showed that lightning was static electricity.

1756

1750

Mikhail Vasilevich Lomonosov, 1711–65. (From the collection of the Peter the Great Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography [Kunstkamera], MJ1-41, Russian Academy of Sciences.)

By: Chianne Drake

1752

John Mitchell publishes the first

book on making steel magnets.

Regarded heat as a form of motion

Suggested a wave theory of light

Contributed to the formulation of the kinetic theory of gases

He stated the idea of conservation of matter in the following words: “All changes in nature are such that inasmuch is taken from one object insomuch is added to another. If the amount of matter decreases in one place, it increases elsewhere. This universal law of nature embraces the laws of motion as well -an object moving others by its own force in fact imparts to another object the force it loses”

In 1748, Lomonosov created a mechanical explanation of gravitation

He was also the first to hypothesize the existence of an atmosphere on Venus based on his observation of the transit of Venus of 1761

1750

The first beginnings of magnetic

levitation can be traced back to

John Mitchell where he noticed

the repulsion of two magnets

when the same pole of each was put together.

Jean Le Rond d'Alembert (1717-1783) performed a series of experiments to measure the drag on a sphere in a flowing fluid, and on the basis of the potential flow analysis he expected that the force would approach zero as the viscosity of the fluid approached zero. However, this was not the case. The net force seemed to converge on a non-zero value as the viscosity approached zero. Hence the vanishing of the net force in the potential flow analysis is known as d'Alembert's Paradox.

The Galaxy is divided into a number of regions, a central bulge, that thins into a disc which is divided into clumps of matter forming arms and regions of more tenuous dust and mass. Finally the disc is surrounded by a number of smaller halo galaxies. In 1750, the English theologian Thomas Wright correctly hypothesized, from the presence of the Milky Way across the sky, that the Galaxy must be a slab-like arrangement of stars. Other theoreticians, such as Immanuel Kant working at the same time were able to use Newton's laws of gravity to prove the theory.

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