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The force of friction resists movement between two surfaces that rub together. A brick wall is held together and kept evenly spaced with mortar, which helps to create large friction forces between each brick.
Friction is also important in frame structures. The friction between the nail and the wood keeps the nail in place and the joints solid. Different types of nails provide differing amounts of friction.
Activity:
Tape and newpaper
Tallest building that can withstand a small load (I’ll bring ping pong ball), wind and stomping for the longest wins.
Concrete :
- can be very strong (compressive strength), but if the proportions are incorrect, the resulting concrete can crumble and fail,
- however it does not have very good shear or torsion strength. Shear forces can be fatal in metal if the shear strength is not analyzed when the metal is manufactured. The cooling process can eliminate almost all defects if it is done properly.
Iron and Steel:
- very strong and able to support very tall buildings
- can be embedded in concrete to provide support
All materials have their limitations. Materials can be strengthened or weakened as they are made.
Wood:
- Wood is lightweight compared to stone, and it's strong once it's been seasoned to remove moisture. It can also be cut to length easily.
- Wood does have some disadvantages, though. It decays eventually, and it's vulnerable to moisture damage and predation by insects like termites. Fire is a big problem, too. Even with these vulnerabilities, wood buildings can survive a long time. The oldest wood building in existence is the Horyu-ji temple in Japan, which dates to the 8th century.
Brick:
- Usually made of clay, brick has been used in many ancient structures such as the Great Wall of China
- Bricks are durable, weather resistant, fire resistant, easy to make and convenient to work with.
Arches :
An arch is a common shape found in structures such as bridges. The arch can support a large load because the force of the load is carried down the arch to the foundation – spreading out the load.
Beams:
A simple beam is a flat structure that is supported on both ends .
Truss :
A truss is a framework of beams joined together, usually in the form of interlocking triangles
Columns:
A column is a solid structure that can stand by itself and is used to support beams.
Because the triangle does not easily deform and is able to balance the stretching and compressive forces inside the structure. This diagram shows how a rectangulated structure withstands force
The cycle frame is made of two triangles to withstand your weight.
Since the triangle obviously has only 3 sides, it requires little material to make a support, thus minimizing the costs. Overall, a triangle is the simplest geometric figure that will not change shape when the lengths of the sides are fixed. In comparison, both the angles and the lengths of a four-sided figure must be fixed for it to retain its shape.
The triangle is the simplest and one of the most familiar of all polygons. It is used in construction and design of every description. We see it in the framework of buildings and bridges. Because it is a rigid figure, the shape of a triangle cannot be changed when pressure is applied to it. For this reason the triangle provides an excellent support for many structures.
1. Cost – How we can use less material while still ensuring that the structure is strong and stable?
2. Strength – The structure must not only support its own weight, but also withstand as much external force as it can. For instance, the swings above have to support the weight of the children using them.
Compression and Tension:
- Compression: the squeezing force a mass exerts on a structure due to gravity (max. = compressive strength)
Tension: the stretching force a mass exerts on an object (max. = tensile force)
- Concrete and wood are good with compression forces but become brittle with tension
- Ways to counteract: using reinforced concrete (concrete reinforced with steel rods to distribute the force of gravity)
Torsion: the tearing or bending force exerted on a structure when two parts are pulled in opposite directions
Shear: the twisting force exerted on a structure
- Buildings are mostly hollow and must be able to withstand the weight of people and furniture – everything comes down to the how gravity is channeled in the structure
- Buildings must experiment with vertical and horizontal structures to distribute the forces equally
- Ways to counteract: Using joists (wooden beams) and girdles (metal beams) for floors that will transmit the force of gravity sideways into the walls where according to Newton’s third law, they will push upwards OR have a strong central core and the walls come out like petals OR have strong vertical beams throughout
*Resonance: - Everything vibrates and has a resonant frequency and if a sound matches the resonant frequency of a structure the structure will experience a lot of movement
- The huge mass of a structure puts an enormous amount of pressure on the foundation (F = ma, therefore if mass increases, the amount of force increases)
- Buildings aren’t built on soft grounds (i.e. swamps and quicksand) but on soil that is compressed so it is as hard as rock
- Subsidence: inconsistencies in moisture content caused by droughts and floods can result in the earth shifting and sliding
- Ways to counteract: foundations are built with stronger material or with extra support (i.e. using steel pillars and bricks) and pump concrete into the base
Polygons are evident in all architecture. They provide variation and charm in buildings. When applied to manufactured articles such as printed fabrics, wallpapers, and tile flooring, polygons enhance the beauty of the structure itself.
The word polygon is derived from the Greek words meaning many angles.
A familiar polygon used in architecture is the quadrilateral. Ceilings, floors, walls, windows and doors usually are quadrilaterals. A quadrilateral is a polygon with four sides. The most common quadrilaterals are the parallelogram, rectangle, square, rhombus, and trapezoid.
Not all geometric figures are formed by straight lines. One of the most useful geometric shapes is the circle. It plays a vital part in our lives: in wheels, in all sorts of containers, in machine parts, in design, and in architecture. The circle provides the most economical form of shelter. Round houses are used in the Arctic and at the equator.
Gravity: the force of attraction between two objects
- Everything has a center of gravity where all the mass of that one object can be concentrated into
- If the center of gravity of the structure is not aligned with the ground, a moment is created by which the force of gravity causes the structure to turn
- If the moment is small, the structure can resist it, if it is large, the structure will fall
- Ways to counteract: build a strong foundation deep into the ground to resist the effects of the moment by pushing in the other direction
The object of the game is simple:
-You start with a stack of 54 blocks -- three blocks across, 18 levels high.
-Each level of blocks should be perpendicular to the level below it.
-Each player must remove a block from near the bottom of the tower and place it on the top using only one hand at a time. Eventually the tower becomes dangerously unstable. If you're the one who finally knocks it over, you lose.
Load Path:
- Each level of the structure needs to support the forces applied downward from the levels above
3 load kinds:
-Dead loads -- forces applied by static components of the structure. (Eg. beams, columns)
-Live loads -- forces applied by "moving" elements that can affect a structure. (Eg. people, cars, and weather events like wind)
-Dynamic loads -- live loads that occur suddenly with great force. (Eg: earthquakes)
Foundations:
- transfer the weight of the structure to the ground.
-anchoring the load to the ground
- Prehistoric Times: structures were often made from mud and stone (i.e. Stonehenge)
- Ancient Civilizations (3,050 BC to 900 BC): Egyptians - Pyramids and the East - Temples
*Used plants, stones, clay, wood, plaster, bitumen and bricks
- Classical (850 to 476 AD): the ancient Greeks and Romans established the Classical Order of Architecture (the iconic columns etc.) which still influences architecture today
- Byzantine - Istanbul (5327 to 565 AD): the Romans, led by Constantine, started using brick instead of stone and built buildings with domed roofs and mosaics
**Romans made the great contribution of concrete
- Art Nouveau (1890 to 1914 AD): a rebellion against classical designs, European architects focused on the curves and asymmetrical shapes found in nature
- Beaux Arts (1895 to 1925 AD): the French made huge regal stone buildings characterized by balconies, columns, large stairways and arches (i.e. Paris Opera)
- Neo-Gothic (1905 to 1930 AD): heavy Victorian influence and emphasis on height, vertical lines, ornaments, and sharp points (i.e. Tribune Tower)
- Art Deco (1925 to 1937 AD): sleek and streamlined style focusing on shapes and lines (i.e. Chrysler Building)
- Modernist (1900 to Present): a rebellion against traditional designs, this style focuses on function and efficiency, little or no ornamentation, use of metal and concrete.
- Postmodernism (1972 to Present): a combination of modern and classical designs, using old shapes in new ways (i.e. Philip Johnson’s AT&T Headquarters)
*The Order of Architecture is a set of rules used to design buildings
- Romanesque (800 1200 AD): during the early medieval period the Romans created stocky buildings with thick walls and heavy piers
- Gothic (1100 to 1450 AD): tall, graceful architecture with pointed arches, ribbed vaulting and flying buttresses (i.e. Notre Dame)
- Renaissance (1400 to 1600 AD): return to the symmetrical and proportional classical architecture
- Baroque (1600 to 1830 AD): the French used dramatic, irregular shapes, and heavy ornamentation (i.e. Versailles)
- Rococo (1650 to 1790 AD): a softer version of Baroque, popular in Europe, it featured delicate curved patterns, shapes, and colors
- Neoclassicism (1730 to 1925 AD): return to classical designs inspired by the Greeks and Romans
Force: any push or pull (Newtons: amount of force needed to lift 100g)
- Effect of the force depends on magnitude (size), location and direction
Load: weight or mass the structure carries
Static: a permanent force (i.e. gravity, or permanent parts of a structure)
Dynamic: a changing forces (i.e. wind, water, earthquake etc.)
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