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Theropod dinosaurs have vertebrae pneumatized in a way that is very similar to modern birds.
What Respiration Does For Mammals
Respiration is necessary to extract oxygen from the air, which is used by cells. Respiration also carries waste carbon dioxide away from the cells. Although respiration depends on other systems (like the circulatory system) to take oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from cells, the respiratory system is primarily responsible for bringing oxygen in to a mammal's body and sending carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
Muscle Structures
Mammalian respiratory systems rely on a single large muscle at the base of the lungs called a diaphragm
The diaphragm pulls the lungs downward to increase their volume, causing air to rush into the lungs
As it presses upward, the lungs become smaller, and air is exhaled
Muscles in the rib cage work in consort with the diaphragm to expand and contract the lungs.
Airways
Different mammals breathe differently
Some breathe through the nose, others breathe through the mouth (some mammals are able to breathe through either the nose or the mouth)
As the air passes through the nose or down the trachea, or airway, small hairs and microscopic hair-like structures filter the air by attracting dust and microbes that could cause damage or infection in the lungs
Lung Structures
As the air passes through the airways, it enters the lungs
Mammals have two lungs
The air is split between the lungs by an airway called bronchi and moves to smaller airways called bronchioles. The bronchioles take the air to alveoli, which are small sacs where the gas transfer occurs.
Problems With Mammilan Respiration
Mammalian respiration can be interrupted by the presence of liquid in the lungs
Whether from an infection or artificially introduced, such as in the case of drowning, liquid in the lungs interferes with the gas transfer in the alveoli. As the alveoli fill with water, less oxygen can reach the blood cells. In extreme cases, such as drowning, enough oxygen is blocked that the brain of the mammal dies.
The respiratory system is made up of the organs involved in breathing and consists of the:
The upper respiratory tract includes the:
The lower respiratory tract includes the:
The Pathway
Inflammatory lung disease - Characterised by a high neutrophil count
Ex. Asthma, cystic fibrosis, emphysema, or acute respiratory distress syndrome
Obstructive lung diseases - Obstructive lung diseases are diseases of the lung where the bronchial tubes become narrowed making it hard to move air in and especially out of the lung.
Ex. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD), an example of an obstructive lung disease, is where the airways become damaged, causing them to narrow.
Restrictive lung diseases (also known as interstitial lung diseases) - are a category of respiratory disease characterized by a loss of lung compliance, causing incomplete lung expansion and increased lung stiffness.
Ex. Infant Respiratory Distress Syndrome (IRDS)
Respiratory tract infections - Infections can affect any part of the respiratory system. They are traditionally divided into upper respiratory tract infections and lower respiratory tract infections.
Upper respiratory tract infection - The most common upper respiratory tract infection is the common cold. However, infections of specific organs of the upper respiratory tract such as sinusitis, tonsillitis, otitis media, pharyngitis and laryngitis are also considered upper respiratory tract infections.
Lower respiratory tract infection - The most common lower respiratory tract infection in is pneumonia, a lung infection. Pneumonia is usually caused by bacteria, particularly Streptococcus pneumoniae in Western countries. Worldwide, tuberculosis is an important cause of pneumonia. Other pathogens such as viruses and fungi can cause pneumonia for example severe acute respiratory syndrome and pneumocystis pneumonia. A pneumonia may develop complications such as a lung abscess, a round cavity in the lung caused by the infection, or may spread to the pleural cavity.
Breathing
Many of us know that people breathe in oxygen and breathe out carbon dioxide, and plants breathe in carbon dioxide and breath out oxygen. But that's not the whole picture. Plants also take in oxygen and release carbon dioxide. Timing is the main issue in determining what is happening within the plant. It really depends on the time of day and sun exposure.
Gas Absorption
By gases being absorbed through pores in the plant: With the absorption of gases through the pores, oxygen is taken in and reacts with glucose. The plant then releases carbon dioxide. The pores of the plant are located everywhere, even the roots. For this reason it is best not to give a plant too much water. It blocks the absorption process, and the plant literally drowns.
Photosynthesis
With photosynthesis, plants absorb light and carbon dioxide. They breathe out oxygen. The sunlight helps break down water and carbon dioxide within the plant and reforms it into oxygen and glucose. Oxygen is then released into the air.
Timing of Each Process
Timing affects what a plant produces. At night there is no way for photosynthesis to occur for most plants, so the plant only gives off carbon dioxide. During cloudy days or low light, the two processes are about even, and they cancel each other out. But during sunny days, plants give off more oxygen than carbon dioxide.
Bacterial respiration is the extraction of energy from glucose to convert that energy into forms the bacteria can use
Free Oxygen
Using free oxygen, bacteria can fully exploit all three chemical pathways for energy extraction--glycolysis, the Krebs Cycle and the electron transport chain
Oxygen Compounds
In the absence of oxygen, some bacteria can still use oxygen by getting it from inorganic oxygen-containing molecules, such as nitrate, nitrite and sulfate
No Oxygen
Alternatively, fermentation enables some bacteria to derive energy from glucose without using oxygen of any kind
Comparisons
Respiration using oxygen (aerobic respiration) provides bacteria with as much as 19 times more energy per glucose molecule than does fermentation, notes the book "Biology." Generally, the more of the electron transport chain respiration uses, the more energy it provides
Accomplished by direct diffusion. In direct diffusion, oxygen passes from the environment through cells on the animal's surface and then into individual cells inside. Sponges, jellyfish, and terrestrial flatworms use this primitive method of respiration. These animals do not have special respiratory organs. Microbes, fungi, and plants all obtain the oxygen they use for cellular respiration by direct diffusion through their surfaces.
Many fungi are capable of burning sugars just like animals, using oxygen and producing carbon dioxide and water as waste products. Obviously they don't have lungs and complex circulatory systems, but the chemistry is the same.
Also like animals, some fungi are capable of anaerobic "respiration" without atmospheric oxygen. Carbon dioxide is still produced, but also other more complex waste products. While these waste products are toxic in animals and limit the use of anaerobic metabolism, in fungi they can be beneficial.
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