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  • 3 Basic Needs:

Autonomy

Competence

Relatedness

Extrinsic Motivation

Cognitive anxiety is defined as ‘fear of failure and negative expectations about performance’

Somatic anxiety is defined a as ‘the individual’s perceptions of their physiological state’

(Hardy et al., 1996: 142).

Normative transitions: those that are predictable, such as the move from junior to senior level in sport

Non-normative transitions: those that are less predictable, such as a season-ending injury, the loss of a coach, unanticipated deselection or moving clubs

While the potential psychological impact of a transitions depends on the type of transition and on the individual athlete concerned, there are four key factors that may influence the athlete’s response:

1. Athletic Identity

2. Level of competition

3. Preparation

4. Support

However, an exclusive identification with the athlete role may have positive effects on participation in sport, exercise adherence and athletic performance (Brewer, Van Raalte and Petitpas, 2000).

SHN4302: Introduction to Sport Psychology

The iceberg profile (Moran, 1980)

The Big 5 personality traits

Developed by:

Dr Chris Rowley @rowleycg and Dr Jon Radcliffe

Developed by Moran (1980)

Previously shown to Characterise athletes based on negative and positive mood states

Measured using the Profile of Mood states (POMS)

These consist of:

  • Tension,
  • Depression
  • Anger
  • Vigour
  • Fatigue,
  • Confusion

Achievement Goal Theory

Self Determination Theory

Type A vs Type B personalty theory

Dweck (1999), Nicholls (1994, 1989)

(Deci & Ryan, 1985)

In this theory, personalities that are more competitive, outgoing, ambitious, impatient and/or aggressive are labeled Type A, while more relaxed personalities are labeled Type B.

Motivational affect, behaviour and cognition can be understood in terms of...

Intrinsic motivation:

psychological processes or drives where the individual feels competent and self-determining, and where continued participation is fuelled by intrinsic enjoyment of the activity itself

Intrinsic Motivation

Role related behaviour

How a person responses depending on the situation

This is the most changeable aspect of personality

Behaviour is dependent on the perception of the environment

Typical responses

The ways we learn to adjust to the environment

How you respond to the world

You my be shy, even-tempered, Laid-back

These may provide indications of your psychological core

They are how a person usually responds

Psychological core

The most basic level of personality

Includes attitudes:

  • values,
  • interests
  • and motives.

Enduring and unlikely to change

The 'Real you'

Extrinsic motivation:

associated with a desire for external rewards, reinforcement or the drive to avoid punishment.

A task orientation (focus on mastery) refers to a self-referenced orientation where the person focuses on improvement and mastery of a skill.

Associated with persistence, optimal effort, choice of moderately challenging activities and the selection of competitive settings that will allow feedback on performance.

  • Task Goal Orientation

or

  • Ego Goal Orientation

Not polarised (4 goal profiles)

Revised by Vallerand (2007)

Ego orientation refers to a normative-referenced orientation, where the person is concerned with demonstrating ability in relation to others.

Associated with a perception of high ability and the selection of activities where the person feels that they will demonstrate superior ability in comparison to others.

If this cannot be achieved the person is thought to select goals that are either very difficult or which avoid failure, in both cases thereby protecting the ego.

Social Factors

Hierarchy of

Contextual

Global

Situational

Type B individuals as a contrast to those of Type A.

Type B personality, by definition, are noted to live at lower stress levels.

They typically work steadily, and may enjoy achievement, although they have a greater tendency to disregard physical or mental stress when they do not achieve.

When faced with competition, they may focus less on winning or losing than their Type A counterparts, and more on enjoying the game regardless of winning or losing.

Type A individuals are outgoing, ambitious, rigidly organized, highly status-conscious, sensitive, impatient, anxious, proactive, and concerned with time management.

High-achieving "workaholics."

They push themselves with deadlines, and hate both delays and ambivalence.

Affective / behavioural / cognitive consequences

Interventions: Motivation

Common professions whose roles are generally well understood include: coach, physician, exercise physiologist, athletic trainer, physical therapist, strength coach, and dietician/nutritionist (Gustafsson, Holmberg, & Hassman, 2008;Wiese-Bjornstal & Smith, 1999).

Increasingly, other professionals are being included. biomechanists, match analysts, and lifestyle consultants (Collins, Moore, Mitchell, and Alpress, 1999).

In addition, the inclusion of technology professionals who are responsible

with handling biofeedback devices or other technologies being used to promote performance is becoming more common.

Personality

Goal Setting

  • Locke & Latham's (1994) four mechanisms of goal setting.
  • Kingston & Hardy (1997) identified 3 different types of goal; outcome, performance and process goals.
  • Burton et al. (2002) suggest that a multiple goal strategy is best...

Imagery

Martin, Moritz & Hall (1999) - 5 Functions of Imagery in Sport

Two cognitive functions (CS & CG)

Three motivational functions:

  • MS
  • MGM
  • MGA

Self-Talk

3 different types (Weinberg & Gould, 2007):

  • positive self-talk
  • negative self-talk
  • instructional self-talk

Alphabet Motivator (Harwood, 2013) technique

Perfectionism

What is an interdisciplinary team?

SMARTER goal setting

Roles within a multidisciplinary sports team

Martin, Moritz and Hall (1999) - Model of Imagery in Sport

A commonly held belief among athletes and prominent sport psychologists is that perfectionism is a marker of high performance athletes

(Dunn, Causgrove-Dunn and Syrotuik ,2002).

Perfectionism is ultimately the idea than anything less than 100% is unacceptable

Adaptive and maladaptive perfectionism

Measuring perfectionism

Frost et al. (1990) developed the Multidimensional perfectionism scale (MPS).

6 subscales; Personal standards, concerns over mistakes, doubts about actions, parental expectations, parental criticism and organization.

Hewitt and Flett’s (1991) Multidimensional approach divided perfectionism into 3 dimensions; Self-orientated, other-orientated, and socially prescribed perfectionism.

  • Self-orientated perfectionism is what you expect of yourself.
  • Other-orientated perfectionism are the demands and expectations you place on others,
  • Socially prescribed perfectionism is what you perceive from others

There is a large body of evidence supporting the idea that having perfectionist tendencies can be debilitative to athletic performance .

Being a perfectionist has positive relationships with:

competitive anxiety (Frost & Hendersom,1991);

burnout ( Hill, Hall, Appleton and Kozub,2008);

and anger ( Dunn,Gotwals & Dunn,2006).

That is, it can lead to having “self-defeating outcomes and can ultimately produce unhealthy behaviour” patterns in athletes, (Flett & Hewitt,2005)

In 2009, Stoeber et al argued that athletes need to have perfectionist tendencies in order to achieve the best possible results.

Those who can control their negative emotions about imperfection can in fact, experience higher levels of self- confidence.

Gould et al (2002) even went as far as to state that perfectionism is a key characteristic of Olympic Champions.

Recently, researchers have started to investigate the idea that it is only specific dimensions that are maladaptive to performance i.e. socially prescribed perfectionism and concern over mistakes, other constructs are adaptive.

Challenges

A sports physiologist sees the athlete in terms of blood and muscle, heart rate and lactate.

A biomechanist talks of the athlete in terms of angles, speed and acceleration.

A psychologist considers the athlete in terms of self confidence, motivation, attitude and arousal.

A physiotherapist is concerned with the recovery of physical musculoskeletal and nevous injuries /conditions

Motivation

Working within a HPT is not without its challenges.

Developing a shared vision and working model, developing trust, creating an atmosphere in which change is expected and viewed as necessary, encouraging open communication, and clarifying roles are a few of the many challenges that may exist (Reid, Stewart, & Thorne, 2004).

Implicit and explicit pressure may exist among the members of a HPT to differentiate oneself, or one’s profession, from other service providers.

This can become an issue because by trying to differentiate oneself professional boundaries become blurred and discomfort, anxiety, and anger can arise within the HPT (Frost, Robinson, & Anning, 2005).

Barriers to entry

  • Negative perceptions to sport psychology - 'just common sense'
  • A 'taboo subject' only when there is something wrong...
  • Perceived sport knowledge
  • Integration in the team

Accessing players - micropolitics

Self-efficacy Theory

Bandura (1997)

Model of Sport Confidence

Vealey (2001)

Dr. Ken Ravizza (1988) discussed the need to pay careful attention to the political organization as one of his three barriers to gaining entry with a

sport organization.

Cruickshank, Collins, and Minten (2013) also echoed Ravizza’s sentiment stating that to work successfully within a HPT there is a need to possess both a rolefocused and department-focused understanding of politics.

Micropolitics are the political interactions that take place between social actors in organisational settings, such as a sporting organisation (Potrac & Jones, 2009).

It is imperative SPPs consider micropolitics with regards to keeping their job; however, it does not take precedence over the primary objective to facilitate performance for the client.

English Football - (Pain and Harwood, 2004)

Self-efficacy refers to athletes’ beliefs that they can execute the behaviours required to

produce desired outcomes (Bandura, 1977b).

  • Self-efficacy differs from outcome expectations
  • Self-efficacy beliefs stem from 4 main sources...

Working with a multi-disciplinary team

Sport confidence was defined as:

“the degree of certainty individuals possess about their ability to be successful in sport” (Vealey, 2001.p566)

Interventions: Confidence

Integrating Sport Psychology

Motivation can be defined simply as:

"the direction and intensity of one's effort"

(Sage, 1977, cited in Weinberg & Gould, 2011 p.51)

Almost all applied sport psychology is concerned with motivation or the psychological processes that energise the individual and thereby influence behaviour.

  • Imagery Martin, Moritz & Hall's (1999) 5 functions

  • Self-Talk

  • Goal-Setting

The value of a working on a HPT is that it lends to the benefit of the client by having experts from multiple disciplines working collectively to create an action plan that mirrors the desire of the client, whether that client is an individual athlete, a team, or an organization.

The various professionals work within their competency

and do not venture outside of their respective scopes of practice.

Self-efficacy beliefs reflect judgments of what an individual can accomplish with their skills (Bandura, 1986).

These judgments are determined by diverse sources of efficacy information, including:

  • past performance accomplishments or mastery experiences,
  • vicarious experience
  • verbal persuasion
  • emotional arousal/ physiological states

(Bandura, 1977, 1986)

Effective Practice

Confidence & Self-Efficacy (and attribution)

Refer to

your notes

Barriers to sport psychology consultancy

(McCalla & Fitzpatrick, 2016)

Potrac and Jones (2009) discussed how understanding micropolitics can lead toavoiding conflicts with existing staff members.

SPPs who preview how they might develop a reputation, who can forge effective alliances (Reid, Stewart, & Thorne, 2004).

The needs of the client(s) are paramount for all SPPs, and the engagement in any political activities cannot interfere with, nor take precedence over, the various ethical obligations such as confidentiality.

SPPs must balance making sure their work is valued and understood by their fellow HPT members while also ensuring they are adhering to their professional (American Psychological Association, 2010; Whelan, 2015) and personal ethics

Attribution

English Football - (Pain and Harwood, 2004)

Integrating sport psychology

With the goal of achieving the highest levels of performance, organizations and teams are hiring a growing number of professionals to work with their athletes

Attributions refer to the perceived causes of events (Hanrahan and Biddle 2008)

A lacrosse player may suggest her team won because of superior skill compared with the opposition.

Someone from the other team may suggest they lost because of poor officiating.

Researchers have categorised the various reasons provided by individuals into a smaller number of dimensions to help understand attributions and make predictions about future behaviour.

Stability, internality and controllability are common dimensions (Weiner, 1992).

(Weiner, 1992)

Strategies to gain entry

Vealey and Chase (2008) defined self-confidence as:

‘the belief that one has the internal resources, particularly abilities, to achieve success’.

  • One of the most consistent findings in the peak performance literature is the direct correlation between high levels of self-confidence and successful sporting performance (Zinsser et al, 2001).

  • Hays et al (2007) identified 9 sources of confidence...

Attributions are perceptions that will not always correspond with reality.

Zone of Optimal Functioning

Along with what are often considered traditional roles, such as strength coaches, nutritionists, and specialized positional coaches, professionals from other fields are increasingly finding employment in sport, biomechanical specialists, sleep experts,and statisticians.

These various professionals often work together as part of a highperformance

team (HPT).

Sport psychology professionals (SPPs) who desire to work

at the highest levels of sport are finding they need to learn to work as a part of these

HPTs (Gustafsson, Holmberg, & Hassman, 2008; Reid, Stewart, & Thorne, 2004).

They are useful to understand however because these explanations will predict behaviour, thoughts and feelings.

Hannin (1989)

Functional Attribution

Dysfunctional Attribution

or

A functional attribution following success is one that is internal, controllable and stable (e.g. good technique).

Alternatively, following failure, a functional attribution would be internal, controllable and unstable (e.g. effort).

A dysfunctional attribution following success is external, uncontrollable and stable (e.g. opposition ability).

Alternatively, following failure, a dysfunctional attribution is generally uncontrollable, stable and internal or external (e.g. either an opponent’s or the athlete’s own ability).

Wherever possible, examples given should relate directly to the experiences of athletes, using language appropriate to the sport.

The acceptance of the sport psychologist by the coach is also important to the success of any programme. Since coaches appear to view themselves as amateur psychologists, they may welcome consultants who actively seek their input.

Themes emerging from the interviews suggested that national coaches appreciated the importance of addressing mental training during physical practices.

  • Each athlete has an individualized zone of optimal functioning, or range of arousal in which they produce their best sporting performances.
  • Arousal levels outside this zone will be associated with suboptimal performance

(McCalla & Fitzpatrick, 2016)

Stakeholders

Theories of Arousal

Experts vs Novices???

Drive Theory

Hull (1943)

Interventions: Regulation Strategies

The Inverted-U Hypothesis

2 Factors influence the relationship:

  • Task Complexity
  • Individual Differences

(Landers & Boutcher, 1998)

Other options...

Models & Theories

The Human Adaptation to

Transition Model

Lifespan Perspective:

The Developmental Model

The Athletic Career

Transition Model

  • Imagery Martin, Moritz & Hall's (1999) 5 functions

  • Self-Talk

Yerkes & Dodson (1908)

Refer to

your notes

(Schlossberg, 1981, 1984; Schlossberg, Water and Goodman, 1995)

(Stambulova, 1997, 2003)

(Wylleman and Lavallee, 2004)

Relaxation techniques:

Breath control

Progressive muscle relaxation

Meditation

The Catastrophe Model

Fazey & Hardy (1988)

Arousal

& Anxiety

Various frameworks have tried to conceptualise the transitions athletes make through their sporting careers, but four groups of models predominate:

1. models of ageing (social gerontological models)

2. models of death and dying (thanatological models)

3. models of human adaptation to transition

4. conceptual models of career transitions in sport

(Lavallee, 2007).

From a holistic perspective it is important to note that the transitions an athlete will face are not exclusively sport related.

Athletes will face transitions at an athletic, psychological, psychosocial and academic/vocational level, which could all interact to impact on sports performance.

A pre-performance routine is an established and practised set of thought processes and behaviours athletes carry out before they perform a self-paced skill (Tod, Thatcher, & Rahman, 2010)

The athletic career transition model views career transitions as a process that creates a potential conflict between what the athlete is and what the athlete wants to be, which requires a coping response (Alfermann and Stambulova, 2007).

This coping response is either effective, leading to a successful transition, or ineffective, leading to a difficult transition.

The Catastrophe Model predicts interactive relationships between cognitive anxiety, physiological arousal and performance.

Career Transitions & Athletic Identity

Biofeedback:

Neurofeedback devices

ECG

While the model was not developed specifically for sport it has been successfully applied to career transitions in sport (Bruner et al., 2011).

Situation: how the transition is perceived by the individual.

Self: the individual’s personal and demographic characteristics, and psychological resources.

Support: the availability and quality of social support.

Strategies: the strategies that can be employed to cope with the transition.

Multidimensional Anxiety Theory

Martens et al. (1990)

Music

Cue words

Centring breath

  • Pre-performance routine

Martens et al. proposed that cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety and self-confidence demonstrate different relationships with performance.

Career Transitions

Psychological Impact

Anxiety

Competitive trait anxiety represents our predisposition to see sports competition as anxiety provoking and this is likely to influence our state anxiety.

State anxiety reflects our current anxiety in a specific situation and varies from one situation to another (e.g. increasing from less to more important sports competitions).

State anxiety is influenced by trait anxiety: higher trait anxiety probably results in higher state anxiety because the athlete perceives an increased threat of being negatively evaluated (Martens, 1977).

Sage (1984) defines arousal as:

“an energizing mechanism that allows us to recruit the resources needed to engage in intense and vigorous activity.”

High levels of arousal manifest in three different ways:

  • Mentally
  • Physiologically
  • Behaviourally

Cognitive anxiety represents the mental aspects of anxiety: the worries, doubts and concerns we have about our performance.

Transitions can be defined as:

“…turning phases in career development that manifest themselves by sets of demands athletes have to meet in order to continue successfully in sport and/or other spheres of life”

(Stambulova, 2010, p. 96)

In the same way that arousal is multidimensional, so too is anxiety, with both cognitive and somatic dimensions.

Somatic anxiety represents our perceptions of the physiological symptoms of arousal, such as increased respiration rate or sweaty palms.

The challenge of transition can impact upon an individual’s athletic development.

Those who cope successfully with the demands of career transitions are more likely to have a long and prosperous career in sport and beyond.

Those who do not cope so well may be vulnerable to stunted athletic development and negative consequences (e.g. dropout from sport, drug/alcohol abuse).

(Stambulova et al., 2009)

Competitive Level

Athletic Identity

Transitions can be classified as:

Individuals with a strong athletic identity risk experiencing emotional difficulties following an athletic injury (e.g., Brewer, 1993).

Hale and Waalkes (1994) also suggested that athletes high in athletic identity are more likely to utilise performance-enhancing drugs.

Athletes who compete at a higher level (e.g. full-time athletes) arguably have greater potential to experience psychological strains in response to transition.

They may have more at stake since sport is their income, or are more likely to have a strong athletic identity.

Or, it could be argued that their full-time status allows them to prepare and develop better coping skills than lower-level athletes.

Athletic identity refers to the degree to which an individual defines herself or himself in terms of the athlete role (Brewer, Van Raalte and Linder, 1993).

Someone with a strong athletic identity will define themselves almost exclusively in the athlete role (unidimensional).

Whilst someone with a weaker athletic identity might define themselves in a wider range of roles, e.g. athlete, parent, business person, student etc. (multidimensional).

Preparation

Support

(Stambulova, 2010; Wylleman and Lavallee, 2004)

2

If an athlete is prepared for a transition, they are more likely to cope with it better.

As such, non-normative transitions (e.g. injury) are often more psychologically challenging than normative transitions (e.g. developmental changes in level).

An athlete who has access to support is more likely to cope with the stresses induced by a career transition.

This might be structured support, such as that provided by a coach or sport psychologist, or unstructured social support provided by family and friends.

Social support has been shown to be beneficial in helping athletes through a wide range of career transitions.

Build rapport with the injured party: Take the athlete’s perspective, provide emotional support, and be realistic but positive and optimistic.

1

Identify athletes and exercisers who are at high risk for injury (high trait anxiety, high life stress, low psychological and coping skills, low social support, and high avoidance coping).

3

Educate the injured person about the injury and recovery process.

Teach specific coping skills: Discuss goal setting,

self-talk, imagery, visualization,

and relaxation training.

Interventions: Transitions

Interventions: Crisis Transitions

4

Teach how to cope with setbacks.

Learn from injured athletes.

Foster social support.

Injury

Interventions: Coping Strategies

  • As prevention may not be sufficient, some transitional challenges can result in developmental conflicts that affect athletes’ mental function and thus lead to a (psychological, interpersonal, social, financial) crisis or traumatic experience (Stambulova, 2010) and thus require crisis-coping interventions (e.g., counseling, therapy).
  • While research among career assistance providers revealed that transition support is generally crisis-preventive in nature (Wylleman & Reints, 2014), experiential knowledge at the Olympic level (Wylleman, 2015; Wylleman, Harwood, Elbe, Reints, & de Caluwé, 2010) also confirmed a significant need for crisis interventions to help athletes cope with anorexia, depression, relationship issues (amongst others).

Transactional Model of Stress & Coping

  • By using a developmental and holistic perspective, opportunities can be identified to prepare athletes for the different concurrent transitional challenges ahead.
  • This could include context-related crisis-prevention interventions (e.g., education management, life skills training, career management).
  • However, as these interventions cannot always be tailor-made nor always be delivered “just-in-time” (Stambulova, 2012), a need exists for programmes aimed at increasing athletes’ self-regulatory competences.
  • Such programs should emphasize a lifespan perspective on coping with transitional challenges and thus provide for the developmental needs in athletes’ careers (North & Lavallee, 2004).

(Lazarus and Folkman, 1984)

Stress, Appraisals & Coping

The TMSC suggests that, when an individual is faced with something that is potentially stressful, personal and situational factors interact and ultimately influence the appraisal process.

The process consists of primary and secondary appraisals.

During primary appraisal, the individual essentially asks themselves: What are the implications of this for me? Does it have potential to harm, hinder or benefit?

Secondary appraisal focuses on minimizing harm or maximizing gains through coping responses (Lazarus and Folkman, 1984).

Three primary appraisal components:

1) goal relevance - extent to which an encounter relates to personal goals

2) goal congruence or incongruence - consistent or inconsistent with what the person wants

3) goal content - consideration of diverse aspects of ego-identity or personal commitments.

Three secondary appraisal components:

1) evaluation of blame or credit (establishing where possible who or what is accountable or responsible)

2) coping potential (if and how the demands can be managed by the individual)

3) future expectations (whether, for any reason, things are likely to change, becoming more or less goal congruent).

Stress

Coping

Lazarus and Folkman’s (1984) defined stress as:

‘a particular relationship between the person and the environment that is appraised by the person as taxing or exceeding his or her resources and endangering his or her well-being’ (p. 19).

This definition is relational, because it assumes that stress is a product of the person who is interacting with his or her environment, who evaluates whether he or she has the resources to deal with the environment. A person experiences stress when he or she evaluates that he or she has insufficient resources to manage the situation.

  • Coping involves cognitive, affective and behavioural efforts to manage a stressor (Lazarus, 1999).
  • The specific skills and strategies used to cope with stressors are typically classified into broad categories that identify the intended purpose of the coping response (Poczwardowski and Conroy, 2002).

Lazarus argued that it is not possible to examine constructs such as stress and coping without viewing how people adapt in their lives.

Emotional Response to the Injury

Positive strategies

Appraisal

Common interventions

Appraisal refers to an evaluative process in which the athlete appraises what is going on in the environment (i.e. competition or training session) in relation to his or her goals or values (Lazarus, 1999).

Lazarus (1991, 1999, 2000a, 2000b) further defined:

Loss appraisals as comprising of anticipated losses and thus the threat of a loss occurring, and losses that have already occurred.

Gain appraisals as referring to gains that a person anticipates and gains that have already occurred.

mental Imagery

(Driediger, Hall and Callow, 2006)

25,000,000

Qualitative analysis

Examined the types of imagery used

Visual and kinaesthetic imagery was used

Cognitive and motivational imagery employed

Cognitive - Skill learning

Motivational - Imagine being recovered

Accepting responsibility for the injury is important

Sense of control of the rehabilitation

Proactive in recovery

Rehab should be active rather than passive with the athlete taking an active role.

Social support is key to emotional recovery

Common interventions

mental Imagery

Over 25 million people are injured each year in sport and exercise (Weinberg and Gould, 2007).

Physical factors are the primary causes of injury, but psychological factors can also contribute.

(Newsom, Knight and Balnave, 2003)

Emotional Response to the Injury

Common interventions

Non-dominant arm was immobilised for 10 days.

Five imagery activities per day

Wrist flexors and extensors strength was maintained.

Control group showed significant reduction in strength.

Strength preservation was credited to increased cortical representation.

Mental imagery can prevent losses due to changes in central programming

Further reading

Goal setting

(Evans and Hardy,2002)

Tracey, J. (2003). The Emotional Response to the Injury and Rehabilitation Process. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 15:4, 279-293, DOI:10.1080/714044197

5 week goal setting intervention

Adherence to exercise significantly improved

Athletes self efficacy significantly improved

Important is the use of proximal and performance orientated goals

Goals set every 7 days

Process goals – achieve a specific range of muscular tension

Performance goals complete a specified number of rehabilitation activities.

More negative thoughts at the onset of injury followed by depression

Injury seen as a learning opportunity

Concerns consist of a loss of playing time and fitness

Fear of injury was not noted as expected

Fear of re-injury common (Bianco et al., 1999; Gould et al., 1997)

Loss of playing position also common (Gould et al., 1997)

Loss of independence

Loss of identity is also important

Realisation of vulnerability

Factors relating to Burnout:

​Physiological and behavioural responses

Tracey (2003)

How Injuries Happen: Psychological Antecedents

  • Physical withdrawal
  • Emotional withdrawal
  • Psychological withdrawal
  • Decreased performance
  • Giving up during play
  • Inappropriate behaviour
  • Interpersonal difficulties

  • Decreased motivation
  • Fatigue
  • Weight changes
  • Susceptible to illnesses
  • Poor sleep
  • Muscle soreness
  • Boredom
  • Anger/irritability

Burnout

Cognitive-Affective Stress model ​(Smith, 1986)

Theories of burnout

Other Injury Reactions

Four stage model

Stage 1 – Situational demands

Stage 2 – Cognitive appraisal

Stage 3 – Physiological responses

Stage 4 – Behavioural responses

Characteristics of burnout

Physical and emotional exhaustion

Lost energy, interest and trust

Feelings of low personal accomplishments, low self-esteem, failure and depression

Depersonalisation and devaluation

Individuals become impersonal and acts negatively towards others. Athletes also devalue the activities and the reasons why they’re partaking.

Negative-training stress response model (Silva, 1990)

Focuses more to physical training loads, although it recognises the importance of psychological factors.

The athlete is stressed physically and psychologically and it can have positive or negative effects.

Research has documented that physical training is certainly involved in burnout process (Kentta & Hassmen, 1998; Kentta et al., 2001).

However, the intensity of the training along with a variety of psychological and social stressors and recovery factors must be considered.

Roles of Sport Psychology in Injury Rehabilitation

The theory is that more training is better, you have to start training early, and you must train year round if you are to compete as a high level.

While competition and training load are two considerable stressors that young athletes face, additional factors such as interpersonal relationships, school and work demands as well as competitive pressure also need to be considered. (Arnold & Fletcher, 2012; Gustafsson et al., 2015; Sarkar & Fletcher, 2014).

The pressure exerted by sports organizations, sponsors, and, in some countries, by governmental bodies (e.g., Sport Authorities, Olympic Training Centres) on young athletes to be successful is greater than ever.

(Anshel & Lidor, 2012; Rice et al., 2016).

Therefore, managing psychosocial stressors might be as important as managing training load to avoid negative consequences, including burnout.

(Appleton, Hall, & Hill, 2009; Rumbold, Fletcher, & Daniels, 2012)

Lack of confidence

Given the inability to practice and compete and their deteriorated physical status, athletes can lose confidence after an injury. Lowered confidence can result in decreased motivation, inferior performance, or additional injury because the athletes overcompensate.

Performance decrements

Because of the lowered confidence and missed practice time, athletes may have post-injury performance declines. Many athletes who have difficulty lowering expectations after an injury expect to immediately return to a pre-injury level of performance.

Unidimentional Identity Development and External Control Model

(Coakley, 1992)

4 models of burnout specific to sport

Cognitive-Affective Stress model (Smith, 1986)

Negative-training stress response model (Silva, 1990)

Unidimentional Identity Development and External Control Model (Coakley, 1992)

Entrapment Theory (Raedeke,1998)

Stress is a symptom of burnout rather than the cause

Burnout is brought about by the social structure of high performance sport for young athletes

In particular, negative effects on personal control and identity result in burnout

Factors relating to Burnout:

​Cognitive appraisal of the situation

Signs of Poor Adjustment to Injuries

3 Phases process of injury rehabilitation

1. Injury or illness phase

2. Rehabilitation and recovery phase

3. Return to full activity phase

Commitment and Entrapment Theory ​(Raedeke,1998)

Burnout is a context of sport commitment

Believes people participate for three reasons:

They want to

They feel they have to

Combination of both

Athletes that are prone to burnout are “entrapped” by sport when they do not really want to participate in it but believe they must maintain their involvement.

Anton Oliver,

Elite Professional Rugby Player

(Hodge, Lonsdale, & Oliver, 2009, p. 88)

  • Perceived overload
  • Lack of meaning and devaluation
  • Lack of enjoyment
  • Learned helplessness
  • Identity crisis
  • Trapped in the situation
  • Decreased life satisfaction

Physiological Components

Feelings of anger and confusion

Obsession with the question of when one can return to play

Denial (e.g., “The injury is no big deal”)

Repeatedly coming back too soon and experiencing re-injury

Exaggerated bragging about accomplishments

Dwelling on minor physical complaints

Guilt about letting the team down

Withdrawal from significant others

Rapid mood swings

Statements indicating that no matter what is done, recovery will not occur

Injury or illness phase focuses on helping the athlete understand the injury.

Rehabilitation or recovery phase focuses attention on helping sustain motivation and adherence to rehabilitation protocols through goal setting and maintaining a positive attitude.

Psychological stress increases catecholamines and glucocorticoids, which impair the movement of healing immune cells to the site of the injury and interfere with the removal of damaged tissue.

Prolonged stress may also decrease the actions of insulin-like growth hormones that are critical during the rebuilding process.

Stress also causes sleep disturbance, another factor identified in interfering with physiologic recovery.

Intervention:

Burnout research​(Gould et al., 1996a,1996b, 1997)

Treatment and Prevention of Burnout

Factors relating to Burnout:

​Personality and motivational factors

(Kubler-Ross, 1969)

Stages of Grief

  • High trait anxiety
  • Low self-esteem and perceived competence
  • Competitive orientation, fear of failure
  • High need to please others
  • Low assertiveness
  • Perfectionism
  • Low perceived control

The athlete begins working towards rehabilitation

Interaction of personal and competitive factors caused burnout

These were categorised as

  • Physical concerns
  • Logistical concerns
  • Social and interpersonal concerns
  • Psychological concerns

Complexity of the stress-injury relationship

Monitor critical states in your athletes (including mood states).

E.g. training loads, sources of stress

Communicate with your athlete

Helps with the above and provides a sense of value and social support

Set short-term goals in competition and practice

Provides a incentive and increases motivation

Provides a sense of achievement

Can direct attention away from stressful situations

Recovery should be planned as meticulously as training bouts

The type of recovery should also reflect the source of overload

Factors relating to Burnout:

​Situational demands

Proposed that unable to take part in sport due to disabling injury can provoke the same response (Peterson, 1986).

Acceptance

Explaining the Stress–Injury Relationship

Severity of the situation is realised

Lack of emotional control is perceived

Lack of participation heightens feelings of isolation

Difficultly in complying with interventions

  • Conflicting demands
  • Lack of control
  • Low social support
  • Excessive demands on time
  • Parental involvement, inconsistent/negative feedback
  • Coach involvement, inconsistent/negative feedback
  • Injuries
  • Training load

Depression

Smith and colleagues (1990) found that life stress related to injuries only in “at-risk” athletes (those with few coping skills and low social support).

Individuals who have low self-esteem, are pessimistic and low in hardiness, or have higher levels of trait anxiety experience more injuries or loss of time due to injuries.

The greatest stress sources for injured athletes were not the physical aspects but the psychological ones (e.g., fear of reinjury, shattered hopes or dreams).

Teaching stress management can reduce risk of injury and illness

Anger

Forced to see the difficulty in recovery

Anger directed at whoever is present

Attempts to calm, or rationalise thoughts are often futile

Prevent injury aggravation from harmful activities

Doesn’t believe the injury is severe

Will return to sport shortly

Attentional disruption: Stress disrupts an athlete’s attention by reducing peripheral attention and causing distraction and task-irrelevant thoughts.

Increased muscle tension: High stress can cause muscle tension and coordination interference as well as generalized fatigue, muscle inefficiency, reduced flexibility, and motor coordination problems.

Denial

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