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Autonomy
Competence
Relatedness
Extrinsic Motivation
Cognitive anxiety is defined as ‘fear of failure and negative expectations about performance’
Somatic anxiety is defined a as ‘the individual’s perceptions of their physiological state’
(Hardy et al., 1996: 142).
Normative transitions: those that are predictable, such as the move from junior to senior level in sport
Non-normative transitions: those that are less predictable, such as a season-ending injury, the loss of a coach, unanticipated deselection or moving clubs
While the potential psychological impact of a transitions depends on the type of transition and on the individual athlete concerned, there are four key factors that may influence the athlete’s response:
1. Athletic Identity
2. Level of competition
3. Preparation
4. Support
However, an exclusive identification with the athlete role may have positive effects on participation in sport, exercise adherence and athletic performance (Brewer, Van Raalte and Petitpas, 2000).
Developed by:
Dr Chris Rowley @rowleycg and Dr Jon Radcliffe
Achievement Goal Theory
Self Determination Theory
Dweck (1999), Nicholls (1994, 1989)
(Deci & Ryan, 1985)
Motivational affect, behaviour and cognition can be understood in terms of...
Intrinsic motivation:
psychological processes or drives where the individual feels competent and self-determining, and where continued participation is fuelled by intrinsic enjoyment of the activity itself
Intrinsic Motivation
Extrinsic motivation:
associated with a desire for external rewards, reinforcement or the drive to avoid punishment.
A task orientation (focus on mastery) refers to a self-referenced orientation where the person focuses on improvement and mastery of a skill.
Associated with persistence, optimal effort, choice of moderately challenging activities and the selection of competitive settings that will allow feedback on performance.
or
Not polarised (4 goal profiles)
Revised by Vallerand (2007)
Ego orientation refers to a normative-referenced orientation, where the person is concerned with demonstrating ability in relation to others.
Associated with a perception of high ability and the selection of activities where the person feels that they will demonstrate superior ability in comparison to others.
If this cannot be achieved the person is thought to select goals that are either very difficult or which avoid failure, in both cases thereby protecting the ego.
Social Factors
Hierarchy of
Contextual
Global
Situational
Affective / behavioural / cognitive consequences
Interventions: Motivation
Goal Setting
Imagery
Martin, Moritz & Hall (1999) - 5 Functions of Imagery in Sport
Two cognitive functions (CS & CG)
Three motivational functions:
Self-Talk
3 different types (Weinberg & Gould, 2007):
Alphabet Motivator (Harwood, 2013) technique
SMARTER goal setting
Martin, Moritz and Hall (1999) - Model of Imagery in Sport
Self-efficacy Theory
Bandura (1997)
Model of Sport Confidence
Vealey (2001)
Self-efficacy refers to athletes’ beliefs that they can execute the behaviours required to
produce desired outcomes (Bandura, 1977b).
Sport confidence was defined as:
“the degree of certainty individuals possess about their ability to be successful in sport” (Vealey, 2001.p566)
Interventions: Confidence
Motivation can be defined simply as:
"the direction and intensity of one's effort"
(Sage, 1977, cited in Weinberg & Gould, 2011 p.51)
Almost all applied sport psychology is concerned with motivation or the psychological processes that energise the individual and thereby influence behaviour.
Self-efficacy beliefs reflect judgments of what an individual can accomplish with their skills (Bandura, 1986).
These judgments are determined by diverse sources of efficacy information, including:
(Bandura, 1977, 1986)
Confidence & Self-Efficacy (and attribution)
Refer to
your notes
Attribution
Attributions refer to the perceived causes of events (Hanrahan and Biddle 2008)
A lacrosse player may suggest her team won because of superior skill compared with the opposition.
Someone from the other team may suggest they lost because of poor officiating.
Researchers have categorised the various reasons provided by individuals into a smaller number of dimensions to help understand attributions and make predictions about future behaviour.
Stability, internality and controllability are common dimensions (Weiner, 1992).
(Weiner, 1992)
Vealey and Chase (2008) defined self-confidence as:
‘the belief that one has the internal resources, particularly abilities, to achieve success’.
Attributions are perceptions that will not always correspond with reality.
Zone of Optimal Functioning
They are useful to understand however because these explanations will predict behaviour, thoughts and feelings.
Hannin (1989)
Functional Attribution
Dysfunctional Attribution
or
A functional attribution following success is one that is internal, controllable and stable (e.g. good technique).
Alternatively, following failure, a functional attribution would be internal, controllable and unstable (e.g. effort).
A dysfunctional attribution following success is external, uncontrollable and stable (e.g. opposition ability).
Alternatively, following failure, a dysfunctional attribution is generally uncontrollable, stable and internal or external (e.g. either an opponent’s or the athlete’s own ability).
Theories of Arousal
Experts vs Novices???
Drive Theory
Hull (1943)
Interventions: Regulation Strategies
The Inverted-U Hypothesis
2 Factors influence the relationship:
(Landers & Boutcher, 1998)
Other options...
Models & Theories
The Human Adaptation to
Transition Model
Lifespan Perspective:
The Developmental Model
The Athletic Career
Transition Model
Yerkes & Dodson (1908)
Refer to
your notes
(Schlossberg, 1981, 1984; Schlossberg, Water and Goodman, 1995)
(Stambulova, 1997, 2003)
(Wylleman and Lavallee, 2004)
Relaxation techniques:
Breath control
Progressive muscle relaxation
Meditation
The Catastrophe Model
Fazey & Hardy (1988)
Arousal
& Anxiety
Various frameworks have tried to conceptualise the transitions athletes make through their sporting careers, but four groups of models predominate:
1. models of ageing (social gerontological models)
2. models of death and dying (thanatological models)
3. models of human adaptation to transition
4. conceptual models of career transitions in sport
(Lavallee, 2007).
From a holistic perspective it is important to note that the transitions an athlete will face are not exclusively sport related.
Athletes will face transitions at an athletic, psychological, psychosocial and academic/vocational level, which could all interact to impact on sports performance.
A pre-performance routine is an established and practised set of thought processes and behaviours athletes carry out before they perform a self-paced skill (Tod, Thatcher, & Rahman, 2010)
The athletic career transition model views career transitions as a process that creates a potential conflict between what the athlete is and what the athlete wants to be, which requires a coping response (Alfermann and Stambulova, 2007).
This coping response is either effective, leading to a successful transition, or ineffective, leading to a difficult transition.
The Catastrophe Model predicts interactive relationships between cognitive anxiety, physiological arousal and performance.
Biofeedback:
Neurofeedback devices
ECG
While the model was not developed specifically for sport it has been successfully applied to career transitions in sport (Bruner et al., 2011).
Situation: how the transition is perceived by the individual.
Self: the individual’s personal and demographic characteristics, and psychological resources.
Support: the availability and quality of social support.
Strategies: the strategies that can be employed to cope with the transition.
Multidimensional Anxiety Theory
Martens et al. (1990)
Music
Cue words
Centring breath
Martens et al. proposed that cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety and self-confidence demonstrate different relationships with performance.
Career Transitions
Psychological Impact
Anxiety
Competitive trait anxiety represents our predisposition to see sports competition as anxiety provoking and this is likely to influence our state anxiety.
State anxiety reflects our current anxiety in a specific situation and varies from one situation to another (e.g. increasing from less to more important sports competitions).
State anxiety is influenced by trait anxiety: higher trait anxiety probably results in higher state anxiety because the athlete perceives an increased threat of being negatively evaluated (Martens, 1977).
Sage (1984) defines arousal as:
“an energizing mechanism that allows us to recruit the resources needed to engage in intense and vigorous activity.”
High levels of arousal manifest in three different ways:
Cognitive anxiety represents the mental aspects of anxiety: the worries, doubts and concerns we have about our performance.
Transitions can be defined as:
“…turning phases in career development that manifest themselves by sets of demands athletes have to meet in order to continue successfully in sport and/or other spheres of life”
(Stambulova, 2010, p. 96)
In the same way that arousal is multidimensional, so too is anxiety, with both cognitive and somatic dimensions.
Somatic anxiety represents our perceptions of the physiological symptoms of arousal, such as increased respiration rate or sweaty palms.
The challenge of transition can impact upon an individual’s athletic development.
Those who cope successfully with the demands of career transitions are more likely to have a long and prosperous career in sport and beyond.
Those who do not cope so well may be vulnerable to stunted athletic development and negative consequences (e.g. dropout from sport, drug/alcohol abuse).
(Stambulova et al., 2009)
Competitive Level
Athletic Identity
Transitions can be classified as:
Individuals with a strong athletic identity risk experiencing emotional difficulties following an athletic injury (e.g., Brewer, 1993).
Hale and Waalkes (1994) also suggested that athletes high in athletic identity are more likely to utilise performance-enhancing drugs.
Athletes who compete at a higher level (e.g. full-time athletes) arguably have greater potential to experience psychological strains in response to transition.
They may have more at stake since sport is their income, or are more likely to have a strong athletic identity.
Or, it could be argued that their full-time status allows them to prepare and develop better coping skills than lower-level athletes.
Athletic identity refers to the degree to which an individual defines herself or himself in terms of the athlete role (Brewer, Van Raalte and Linder, 1993).
Someone with a strong athletic identity will define themselves almost exclusively in the athlete role (unidimensional).
Whilst someone with a weaker athletic identity might define themselves in a wider range of roles, e.g. athlete, parent, business person, student etc. (multidimensional).
Preparation
Support
(Stambulova, 2010; Wylleman and Lavallee, 2004)
2
If an athlete is prepared for a transition, they are more likely to cope with it better.
As such, non-normative transitions (e.g. injury) are often more psychologically challenging than normative transitions (e.g. developmental changes in level).
An athlete who has access to support is more likely to cope with the stresses induced by a career transition.
This might be structured support, such as that provided by a coach or sport psychologist, or unstructured social support provided by family and friends.
Social support has been shown to be beneficial in helping athletes through a wide range of career transitions.
Build rapport with the injured party: Take the athlete’s perspective, provide emotional support, and be realistic but positive and optimistic.
1
Identify athletes and exercisers who are at high risk for injury (high trait anxiety, high life stress, low psychological and coping skills, low social support, and high avoidance coping).
3
Educate the injured person about the injury and recovery process.
Teach specific coping skills: Discuss goal setting,
self-talk, imagery, visualization,
and relaxation training.
Interventions: Transitions
Interventions: Crisis Transitions
4
Teach how to cope with setbacks.
Learn from injured athletes.
Foster social support.
Interventions: Coping Strategies
Transactional Model of Stress & Coping
(Lazarus and Folkman, 1984)
Stress, Appraisals & Coping
The TMSC suggests that, when an individual is faced with something that is potentially stressful, personal and situational factors interact and ultimately influence the appraisal process.
The process consists of primary and secondary appraisals.
During primary appraisal, the individual essentially asks themselves: What are the implications of this for me? Does it have potential to harm, hinder or benefit?
Secondary appraisal focuses on minimizing harm or maximizing gains through coping responses (Lazarus and Folkman, 1984).
Three primary appraisal components:
1) goal relevance - extent to which an encounter relates to personal goals
2) goal congruence or incongruence - consistent or inconsistent with what the person wants
3) goal content - consideration of diverse aspects of ego-identity or personal commitments.
Three secondary appraisal components:
1) evaluation of blame or credit (establishing where possible who or what is accountable or responsible)
2) coping potential (if and how the demands can be managed by the individual)
3) future expectations (whether, for any reason, things are likely to change, becoming more or less goal congruent).
Stress
Coping
Lazarus and Folkman’s (1984) defined stress as:
‘a particular relationship between the person and the environment that is appraised by the person as taxing or exceeding his or her resources and endangering his or her well-being’ (p. 19).
This definition is relational, because it assumes that stress is a product of the person who is interacting with his or her environment, who evaluates whether he or she has the resources to deal with the environment. A person experiences stress when he or she evaluates that he or she has insufficient resources to manage the situation.
Lazarus argued that it is not possible to examine constructs such as stress and coping without viewing how people adapt in their lives.
Emotional Response to the Injury
Positive strategies
Appraisal
Common interventions
Appraisal refers to an evaluative process in which the athlete appraises what is going on in the environment (i.e. competition or training session) in relation to his or her goals or values (Lazarus, 1999).
Lazarus (1991, 1999, 2000a, 2000b) further defined:
Loss appraisals as comprising of anticipated losses and thus the threat of a loss occurring, and losses that have already occurred.
Gain appraisals as referring to gains that a person anticipates and gains that have already occurred.
mental Imagery
(Driediger, Hall and Callow, 2006)
25,000,000
Qualitative analysis
Examined the types of imagery used
Visual and kinaesthetic imagery was used
Cognitive and motivational imagery employed
Cognitive - Skill learning
Motivational - Imagine being recovered
Accepting responsibility for the injury is important
Sense of control of the rehabilitation
Proactive in recovery
Rehab should be active rather than passive with the athlete taking an active role.
Social support is key to emotional recovery
Common interventions
mental Imagery
Over 25 million people are injured each year in sport and exercise (Weinberg and Gould, 2007).
Physical factors are the primary causes of injury, but psychological factors can also contribute.
(Newsom, Knight and Balnave, 2003)
Emotional Response to the Injury
Common interventions
Non-dominant arm was immobilised for 10 days.
Five imagery activities per day
Wrist flexors and extensors strength was maintained.
Control group showed significant reduction in strength.
Strength preservation was credited to increased cortical representation.
Mental imagery can prevent losses due to changes in central programming
Further reading
Goal setting
(Evans and Hardy,2002)
Tracey, J. (2003). The Emotional Response to the Injury and Rehabilitation Process. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 15:4, 279-293, DOI:10.1080/714044197
5 week goal setting intervention
Adherence to exercise significantly improved
Athletes self efficacy significantly improved
Important is the use of proximal and performance orientated goals
Goals set every 7 days
Process goals – achieve a specific range of muscular tension
Performance goals complete a specified number of rehabilitation activities.
More negative thoughts at the onset of injury followed by depression
Injury seen as a learning opportunity
Concerns consist of a loss of playing time and fitness
Fear of injury was not noted as expected
Fear of re-injury common (Bianco et al., 1999; Gould et al., 1997)
Loss of playing position also common (Gould et al., 1997)
Loss of independence
Loss of identity is also important
Realisation of vulnerability
Tracey (2003)
How Injuries Happen: Psychological Antecedents
Other Injury Reactions
Roles of Sport Psychology in Injury Rehabilitation
Lack of confidence
Given the inability to practice and compete and their deteriorated physical status, athletes can lose confidence after an injury. Lowered confidence can result in decreased motivation, inferior performance, or additional injury because the athletes overcompensate.
Performance decrements
Because of the lowered confidence and missed practice time, athletes may have post-injury performance declines. Many athletes who have difficulty lowering expectations after an injury expect to immediately return to a pre-injury level of performance.
Signs of Poor Adjustment to Injuries
3 Phases process of injury rehabilitation
1. Injury or illness phase
2. Rehabilitation and recovery phase
3. Return to full activity phase
Physiological Components
Feelings of anger and confusion
Obsession with the question of when one can return to play
Denial (e.g., “The injury is no big deal”)
Repeatedly coming back too soon and experiencing re-injury
Exaggerated bragging about accomplishments
Dwelling on minor physical complaints
Guilt about letting the team down
Withdrawal from significant others
Rapid mood swings
Statements indicating that no matter what is done, recovery will not occur
Injury or illness phase focuses on helping the athlete understand the injury.
Rehabilitation or recovery phase focuses attention on helping sustain motivation and adherence to rehabilitation protocols through goal setting and maintaining a positive attitude.
Psychological stress increases catecholamines and glucocorticoids, which impair the movement of healing immune cells to the site of the injury and interfere with the removal of damaged tissue.
Prolonged stress may also decrease the actions of insulin-like growth hormones that are critical during the rebuilding process.
Stress also causes sleep disturbance, another factor identified in interfering with physiologic recovery.
(Kubler-Ross, 1969)
Stages of Grief
The athlete begins working towards rehabilitation
Complexity of the stress-injury relationship
Proposed that unable to take part in sport due to disabling injury can provoke the same response (Peterson, 1986).
Acceptance
Explaining the Stress–Injury Relationship
Severity of the situation is realised
Lack of emotional control is perceived
Lack of participation heightens feelings of isolation
Difficultly in complying with interventions
Depression
Smith and colleagues (1990) found that life stress related to injuries only in “at-risk” athletes (those with few coping skills and low social support).
Individuals who have low self-esteem, are pessimistic and low in hardiness, or have higher levels of trait anxiety experience more injuries or loss of time due to injuries.
The greatest stress sources for injured athletes were not the physical aspects but the psychological ones (e.g., fear of reinjury, shattered hopes or dreams).
Teaching stress management can reduce risk of injury and illness
Anger
Forced to see the difficulty in recovery
Anger directed at whoever is present
Attempts to calm, or rationalise thoughts are often futile
Prevent injury aggravation from harmful activities
Doesn’t believe the injury is severe
Will return to sport shortly
Attentional disruption: Stress disrupts an athlete’s attention by reducing peripheral attention and causing distraction and task-irrelevant thoughts.
Increased muscle tension: High stress can cause muscle tension and coordination interference as well as generalized fatigue, muscle inefficiency, reduced flexibility, and motor coordination problems.
Denial