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- In 1942, Columbus arrived to the new world, it was thought that there were 40 - 50 million indigenous people in the Americas. This figure represented over hundreds of tribes, with over 2000 distinct languages.
- Despite the large amount of tribes, many experienced similar hardships when it came to the arrival of European Colonizers.
- When Europeans first arrived, they brought diseases and fighting to the Native Americans. This resulted in roughly 80-95% of the Native American population to die during the first 100-150 years of European colonization.
- As more Europeans started to steal and cultivate the land from Native Americans, Native Americans began to fight back causing more death.
- With such a difficult history, many tribes were forced to relocate bringing along each of their own distinct religious traditions.
- Although there are a vast majority of tribes, we are going to focus on three major tribes; The Cherokee, Navajo, and Aztec.
- 900 and 1525 A.D: Development of Navajo culture in present-day Northwestern New Mexico
- 16th century: Contact with with early Spanish explorers
- 1680: Navajo, Apache, and Pueblo Indians revolt against the Spanish.
- Late 18th century: Conflict against the Spanish, Comanches, and Utes to stop Spanish forces from conquering the Southwest. Many Navajo forced into slave labor.
- 1863: U.S. troops used scorched earth tactics to force Navajo Surrender. This resulted in the Long Walk with many Navajo dying.
- 1868: Treaty that allowed Navajo to return to their homeland.
- 1950s-1960s: Discovery of oil and gas.
- 1540: First European recorded contact
- 1725: Treaties made between British and Cherokee
- 1828: Gold discovered in Cherokee territory.
- 1838: Measures to remove Cherokee began
- 1839: New Cherokee Nation Constitution
- 1844: Development of Cherokee Supreme Court building, newspaper, schools, businesses, etc
- 1866: Treaty of 1866
- 1907: Oklahoma became a state, Cherokees became land owner and citizens
- 1970: Principal Chief’s Act of 1970, allowed Cherokees to resume their own government and elect tribal officials.
- 1971: First Cherokee election
- 1975: Cherokee Constitution ratified
- 12th Century CE: Aztec people migrate from Northern Mexican Plateau to Mesoamerica.
- 1325: City of Tenochtitlán established, the capital of the empire.
- 1428-1440: Alliance between Tenochtitlán and Texcoco and Tlacopan. Aztec become a prominent power within central Mexico
- 1486- 1487: Ahuitzotl becomes ruler
- 1502: Montezume II becomes ruler
- 1519: Spanish conquistadors arrive
- 1520: Montezuma dies being held captive by the Spanish. Spanish win the battle of Otumba. Cuitláhuac becomes Aztec leader.
- 1521: Aztec capital falls to the Spanish, this is considered the end of the Aztec empire.
- Religion is a difficult concept to grasp when it come to Native American culture.
- It is claimed that the traditional way of life for indigenous Native Americans did not include religion.
- Many tribes see religion as a partnership between living humans and the people or objects that surround them.
- For most tribes, traditions and culture did not pass through written documents and texts but through communication with others. This is what kept continuity in their lifestyles and culture.
- With the arrival of Europeans to North America, many of the Native americans traditions changed. Languages, ceremonies, oral knowledge, history, and many facets of their lives were destroyed. This caused much of what we know about native traditions to be lost.
- Aztec religion was polytheistic with at least 200 gods, each with its own role within the Aztec world.
- It was believed that the Earth was located between 13 heavens and 9 underworlds.
- To appease the gods, the Aztec people found that human sacrifice was a necessity, offering hearts to the gods.
- An important aspect of the Aztec religion was the Mayan calendar which consisted of 365 solar days and 260 sacred days which together produced two yearly cycles running congruently. These cycles would then make up a larger cycle of 52 years.
- The Aztecs had two key beliefs, the universe was unstable and that it was threatened continually by death and destruction. The other belief was that human sacrifice was very important to appease their gods.
- The people's duties were to fight and die for their gods and to maintain the world order.
- Part of the religion consisted heavily of witchcraft, omens, and portents for their gods.
-The Aztec religion was a combination of the Gods from earlier Meso-american societies and as they conquered more land they adopted many other Gods into their religion. The scripture that was created first was the original Gods and expanded with each God or tradition added
-Aztecs scriptures or sacred texts are very different from other religions. Their sacred texts were painted on documents or books and were mostly pin picture format. Aztecs created these texts to teach younger generations and to document their religion
-The Major characters in the verbal and documented religion of the Aztecs were Huitzilopochtli (God of Sun and War), Quetzalcoatl (God of Wind and Wisdom), Tezcatlipoca (God of the night sky), Mictlāntēcutli (God of The Dead), and Tlaloc (The God of Rain).These main Gods were the main focus of many stories and traditions.
- The Cherokee carried the belief that the world had three parts.
- The upper world contains good spirits that guided and protected humans and animals. The middle world, where plants, animals, and humans live. Lastly, The Underworld containing bad spirits.
- The spirits of the upper world can move between the upper and middle world to bring balance and harmony to the Earth.
- The bad spirits from the underworld could rise through springs, lakes, and caves to bring disaster. It was the job of the upper world spirits to restore balance.
- The Cherokee did not view themselves as separate from nature but as part of their surrounding. They were one, trying to maintain their connection and place within their environment. The goal is to maintain harmony and balance within it.
- The Cherokee had songs, dances, stories, and artwork to express the importance of maintaining this harmony and balance.
-The Cherokee did not have a written scripture or sacred text. The Cherokee instead practiced and passed down their religion through verbal communication. This communication included songs, dances, stories, artwork, tools, and buildings
-The Cherokee used this oral form of scripture to tell their myths and legends. This was necessary for its people to reach the religion's main goals of balance, harmony, and health.
-The Cherokee practiced their religion through stories and rituals. The major characters in these were spirits, people, animals, and the environment. An example of this is “Bears race with Turtle” and describes how wisdom is important and can even help you beat a fast bear in a race.
- According to Navajo tradition, the Navajo people are called the Diné. They arrived in this world, the fourth world, by passing through three worlds.
- They carry the belief that there are two types of beings, the earth, and holy people. The holy people were created to control the earth people. They can either help or create a harsh environment for them. So, it is the job of the earth people to maintain balance and harmony in this world.
- The holy people instructed the Navajo people on how to maintain this balance and harmony between Mother Earth, the Father Sky, and all the people and objects that live on the Earth.
- According to their beliefs, the holy people placed four sacred mountains on earth. Each mountain faces a different direction, North, East, South, and West. Each mountain is associated with a color; East being white, turquoise being South, yellow being West, and black being North.
- The number four has significant importance to the Navajo people. They have four directions, season, clans, colors, and mountains. Every ritual, tradition, or cultural object mentions the number four in some aspect.
-The Navajo did not have a written scripture or sacred text. The Navajo used mostly ceremonies that connected with war, hunting, agriculture, and the treatment of illness. There are sixty or more major ceremonies which are performed by the highly respected men called “singers”. These ceremonies include: songs, prayers, magical rituals, the making of prayer-sticks and other paraphernalia, and the making of an elaborate dry-painting using colored sands.
-Navajo used ceremonies, stories, poetry, song, dance, and costume to practice or teach their religion.
-The major characters in the Navajo religion were deities that included: the Spider Woman, Monster slayers, and the Sun God. Additionally, they would include other super natural powers that included: animals, wind, weather, light, darkness, and monsters.
- Much of the scripture weren't written down, but passed down via story-telling.
- Stories would include a certain number that was sacred to the specific tribe, similar to the number three in Christianity.
- Often, the number was four, for the cardinal directions.
- Presented from encyclopedia.com, Many stories would have some sort of explanation for why plants and animals look or behave a certain way.
- The Cherokee's broke down into two major forms of religious texts with the Animism and the Shamanism.
- The Animism included the descriptions as all living beings humans and animals having spirits.
- The Shamanism was the descriptions of all other spirits that were unseen.
- One tradition is often called the Stomp Dance, and is often performed during the Green Corn Ceremony.
-Described from weebly.com, The Aztecs had no written scripture or text but instead had specific codices. The specific codices would be created not through words but through art work with each art work being unique.
-These specific codices usually described the power of the gods.
-From Historyonthenet.com, a major tradition for the Aztecs was human sacrifice, as the Gods gave their blood and lives in the creation of all things.
- According to encyclopedia.com, The sacred text used by the Navajo was the Path of K's and this path was to walk in beauty and harmony
- The Path of K's was described as the relationship of the kinship to the environment and the universe.
- From Navajocodetalkers.org, one important tradition of the Navajo was the death rituals. They were rather specific and important to follow, so the souls of the dead wouldn't return to th Earth.
North American tribes have faced a long history of forced displacement, stolen land, impediment on their culture, and loss of money. They have been a constant source for white European communities to take advantage of them for expansion in the US and control depriving them of basic human rights.
As a result of continual forced displacement and control of their lives, the United Nations Human Rights Committee implemented the 1966 Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR). This was ratified by the US in 1992.
Under Article 1 of the ICCPR, it is a violation for anyone to deny North American Indigenous tribe's right to be able to control their land and resources. It states that, "“the rights of all peoples to self-determination and by virtue of that right to freely determine their political status and freely pursue their economic, social, and cultural development.” Article 27 of the ICCPR also protects these tribes right to "enjoy their own culture, profess and practice their own religion, and to use their own language."
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Conflict and Violence
-During the Golden Age many Europeans have pushed their religion and influence on the Native Americans causing the destruction of artifacts and traditions.
-As the Europeans made settlement into the New World of North America they disregarded the traditions and practices the Native Americans killing them and pushing them out of their own territories.
-The greatest violent act that was brought upon the Cherokee tribe was the Trail of Tears.
-The Europeans then started claiming their land and pushing them out leading into the "Trail of Tear."
-In 1836, stated from history.com, The Indian Removal Act marched Native Americans out of their land/territory for 5,043 miles long leaving more than 5,000 Cherokees to die during this process
-The Aztec Tribe had a great and powerful Empire that lasted until the Europeans invaded.
-November 1519, according to History.com, Hernan Cortes and his men landed in the Aztec city of Tenochtitlan, where the leader of the Aztec Empire Montezuma greeted them with welcome arms.
-Cortes then took Montezuma hostage granting control of Tenochtitlan, and with this control he murdered thousands of Aztecs and Montezuma died under custody.
-While the Europeans made settlement in the fall of the great Aztec Empire they brought in many diseases (smallpox, measles, and mumps) killing more and more Aztec civilans.
-Described by U.S.History.com, When Americans ended the Mexican War with a the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, they claimed the Navajo territory.
-Claiming their territory was very difficult but the Americans forced the Navajo Tribe to leave. In 1863, United States forces killed over 8,000 of the Navajo Tribe and used the "Scorched Earth Policy" destroying all their crops and killing the remainder of their livestock.
-Stated from U.S.History.com, This forced the Navajo Tribe to abandon their territory and travel to New Mexico.
As a whole Indigenous North American tribes alike have men and women who share similar roles across tribes. Women generally tend to be in charge of caring for the children, gathering foods such as berries and nuts, and preparation of the food and clothing. While the men are responsible for hunting, fishing, warfare, and ceremonies.
Wilma Mankiller | First Female Chief of the Cherokee Nation | #SeeHer Story | Katie Couric Media
Wilma Mankiller broke all gender norms for the Cherokee when she became chief, something that was only ever done by men.
This woven piece was created by Sierra Teller Ornelas, a women in a Navajo tribe. This piece was in the Hood Museum of Art from July-January 2009. Although there is a modern incorporation, it was made in the tradition method. Ornelas learned how to weave from her mother by watching her.
(Art by Florentine Codex)
an Aztec woman making corn (maize) in a pot
Aztec men farming corn
-Thomas, W. B. (2006, September 1). U.N. Human Rights Committee Denounces U.S. Indigenous policies. Cultural Survival. Retrieved April 11, 2022, from https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/un-human-rights-committee-denounces-us-indigenous-policies
-Fassett, S. (1986). Navajo Women's Story 1868 to 1960: Separation of the Sexes. ms, Washington D.C. Retrieved from https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/1051137.
-Maxwell, J., & Lee, S. (n.d.). Cherokee and Apache. 8 Humanities. Retrieved April 11, 2022, from http://8bishumanities.weebly.com/cherokee-and-apache.html
-Ornelas, S. T. (n.d.). Southwest: Gender Roles & Family. Hood Museum of Art: Native American Art Teacher Resources. Retrieved April 11, 2022, from https://www.naaer.hoodmuseum.dartmouth.edu/southwest/gender-family/work-2
-Beck, E. (2018, August 15). Roles of Men and Women in the Aztec Empire. History Crunch- History Articles, Biographies, Infographics, Resources and More. Retrieved April 11, 2022, from https://www.historycrunch.com/roles-of-men-and-women-in-the-aztec-empire.html#/
-Cherokee creation story. (2016, May 12). USC Digital Folklore Archives | A database of folklore performances. Retrieved April 10, 2022, from https://folklore.usc.edu/cherokee-creation-story/
-Gunther, E. (n.d.). Native American literature. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved April 7, 2022, from https://www.britannica.com/art/Native-American-literature
-Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2020, June 19). Aztec religion. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Aztec-religion
-Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2020, August 28). Aztec Empire Timeline. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/summary/Aztec-Empire-Timeline
-History. Cherokee Nation History. (n.d.). Retrieved April 10, 2022, from https://www.cherokee.org/about-the-nation/history/
-Lewis, R. B. (n.d.). Navajo culture. Discover Navajo. Retrieved April 10, 2022, from https://discovernavajo.com/navajo-culture/
-Pauls, E. Prine (2021, August 17). Native American. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Native-American
-Raley, K. (n.d.). Maintaining Balance: The Religious World of the Cherokees. Anchor. Retrieved April 10, 2022, from https://www.ncpedia.org/anchor/maintaining-balance
-The National Archives. (2021, August 17). Native North Americans. The National Archives. Retrieved April 10, 2022, from https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/resources/native-north-americans/
Root. (2018, June 14). Aztec rituals and religious ceremonies. History. Retrieved April 11, 2022, from https://www.historyonthenet.com/aztec-religious-ceremonies-and-rituals
Navajo death rituals. (2014, July 16). Navajo Code Talkers - Interviews, Videos & More. Retrieved April 11, 2022, from https://navajocodetalkers.org/navajo-death-rituals/
-Utah American Indian Digital Archive. (n.d.). History: The Navajo. Retrieved April 10, 2022, from https://utahindians.org/archives/navajo/history.html
-Vaughn, L. (2016). Anthology of World Religions. Oxford University Press Academic
US. https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9780190248758
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-“Aztec Religion.” World ReligionS - Home, https://rst61-d2spring2015groupo.weebly.com/aztec-religion.html#:~:text=Aztecs%20had%20no%20specific%20sacred%20scriptures%20or%20texts%2C,text%20but%20they%20were%20designed%20in%20art%20form.
History.com Editors. “Aztecs.” History.com, A&E Television Networks, 27 Oct. 2009, https://www.history.com/topics/ancient-americas/aztecs.
-Navajo Conflicts, https://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1171.html.