Introducing
Your new presentation assistant.
Refine, enhance, and tailor your content, source relevant images, and edit visuals quicker than ever before.
Trending searches
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0rDdnJp0NEQ
"It is possible to fly without motors, but not witho...
"It is possible to fly without motors, but not without knowledge and skill."
Wilbur Wright
First flight with powered heavier-than-air aircraft: 1903.12.17. Wright Brothers
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RriKI7u72Xs
First flight based on instruments
Pittsbugh airport
Pennsylvania Central Airlines
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mgBf4QJK73Y
First fully automatic landing using ILS system
1964 March
Bradford Airport UK
First fully automatic landing using ILS syst...
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mTdwYvDHY00
To put instrument flight rules into context, a brief overview of visual flight rules is neccessary!
Except special VFR flight, VFR flights shall be conducted so that the aircraft is flown in conditions of visiblity and distance from clouds equal to or greater than those specified in: (VMC)
Lower flight visiblity to 1500m may be permitted for flights operating:
Except when a clearance is obtained from an ATC unit, VFR flights shall not take-off or land at an aerodrome within a control zone, or enter the aerodrome traffic zone or traffic pattern:
VFR flights shall not be flown:
Special visual flight rules:
Special visual flight rules:
One purpose in instrument training and in maintaining instrument proficiency is to prevent us from being misled by several types of hazardous illusions that are peculiar to flight.
Knowledge, good judgment, and proficient instrument flying skills are needed to improve statistics and help insure safe flying.
In general an illusion or false impression occurs when information provided by our sensory organs is misinterpreted or inadequate.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rhw9BxBDvzk
Many illusions in flight can be created by compl...
Many illusions in flight can be created by complex motions and certain visual senes that we encounter under adverse weather conditions and at night.
Some illusions may lead to spatial disorientation or the inability to determine accurately the attitude or motion of the aircraft in relation to the Earth's surface. Other illusions may lead to landing errors.
Spatial disorientation as a result of continued VFR flight into adverse weather conditions is regularly near the top of the cause/factor list in annual statistics on fatal aircraft accidents.
These systems work together so effectively when we are on the ground that we seldom have any difficulty with orientation.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dSHnGO9qGsE
The vestibular system:
As movements consist of rotations and translations, the vestibular system comprises two components:
The semicircular canals:
The semicircular canals consist of three tubes at approximate right angles to each other, each located on one of three axes: pitch, roll, or yaw
Because of the friction between the fluid and the canal, it may take about 15–20 seconds for the fluid in the ear canal to reach the same speed as the canal’s motion.
To illustrate what happens during a turn, visualize the aircraft in straight-and-level flight. With no acceleration of the aircraft, the hair cells are upright, and the body senses that no turn has occurred. Therefore, the position of the hair cells and the actual sensation correspond.
The otolith organs:
Forward acceleration gives the illusion of the head tilting backward.
As a result, during takeoff and while accelerating, the pilot may sense a steeper than normal climb resulting in a tendency to nose-down.
send signals to the brain, which signals the body’s relation to
gravity.
A condition called “the leans” can result when a banked attitude, to the left for example, may be entered too slowly to set in motion the fluid in the “roll” semicircular tubes.
An abrupt correction of this attitude sets the fluid in motion, creating the illusion of a banked attitude to the right.
The disoriented pilot may make the error of rolling the aircraft into the original left banked attitude, or if level flight is maintained, feel compelled to lean in the perceived vertical plane until this illusion subsides.
To prevent illusions and their potentially disastrous consequences, pilots can:
The sensations that lead to illusions during instrument flight conditions are normal perceptions experienced by pilots. These undesirable sensations cannot be completely prevented, but through training and awareness, pilots can ignore or suppress them by developing absolute reliance on the flight instruments. As pilots gain proficiency in instrument flying, they become less susceptible to these illusions and their effects.
1, Featureless Terrain Illusion:
2, Water Refraction:
3, Haze:
4, Fog:
5, Ground Lighting Illusions:
To prevent these illusions and their potentially hazardous consequences, pilots can:
flying or is intended to be flown.
The four basic forces acting upon an aircraft in flight are lift, weight, thrust, and drag.
Drag is the net aerodynamic force parallel to the relative wind and is generally a sum of two components: induced drag and parasite drag.
Induced Drag:
Parasite Drag:
Newton’s First Law, the Law of Inertia
Newton’s Second Law, the Law of Momentum
When induced drag and parasite drag are plotted on a graph, the total drag on the aircraft appears in the form of a “drag curve.”
http://www.boldmethod.com/learn-to-fly/systems/4-types-of-trim-tabs/
Anytime an aircraft is flying near the stalling speed or the region of reversed command, such as in final approach for a normal landing, the initial part of a go around, or maneuvering in slow flight, it is operating in what is called slow-speed flight.
Because the same lift is required during low speed flight and is characterized by high AOA, flaps or other high lift devices are needed to either change the camber of the airfoil, or delay the boundary level separation.
Cl can be increased by increasing of AOA
It should be noted that with the application of flaps, the aircraft will stall at a lower AOA.
increase CL-MAX.
Any time ailerons are used, adverse yaw is produced. Adverse yaw is caused when the ailerons are deflected as a roll motion (as in turn) is initiated.
Coordination of Rudder and Aileron Controls
Coordination of Rudder and Aileron Controls
The increase in induced drag, caused by the increase in AOA necessary to maintain altitude results in a minor loss of airspeed if the power setting is not changed.
Any force applied to an aircraft to deflect its flight from a straight line produces a stress on its structure; the amount of this force is termed load factor. A load factor is the ratio of the aerodynamic force on the aircraft to the gross weight of the aircraft (e.g., lift/weight).
One of the greatest hazards to flight is aircraft icing. The instrument pilot must be aware of the conditions conducive to aircraft icing. These conditions include the types of icing, the effects of icing on aircraft control and performance, effects of icing on aircraft systems, and the use and limitations of aircraft deice and anti-ice equipment.
Ice in the induction system can reduce the amount of air available for combustion. The most common example of reciprocating engine induction icing is carburetor ice.
Mixed ice is a combination of clear and rime ice formed on the same surface. It is the shape and roughness of the ice that is most important from an aerodynamic point of view.
Any of the following symptoms, occurring singly or in combination, may be a warning of tailplane icing:
If any of the above symptoms occur, the pilot should:
See in chapter: Flight Instruments
You need to have a thorough understanding of the build and operating principles of the basic insturments we use. This is fundamental for learning modern avionics and detection of their failure while flying.
source is usally indcluded which is not
as accurate as the normal system!
NDB= Non Directional Beacon
Types of NDB, with increasing power output:
The amplified signal finally reaches the transmission aerial where it is radiated omnidirectionally
Cone of silence:
Frequency band: upper LF and lower MF placed to produce the ground/surface wave range required
It should be noted that many other transmitters operate within the NDB band of frequencies and can be detected by the aircraft's receiver.
Beacon must be identified before of useage!!!
ADF fixed loop antenna:
ADF=Automatic Direction Finder
Control Panel:
In some types of receivers the ADF needle will go to a "park" position (090 deg relative) when no signals are received
Identification:
Bearing indicators:
RBI/Fixed Card Indicator:
Manually rotatable card:
Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI):
Ground Installation:
108.0 to 111.95
108.10 Localizer
108.15 Localizer
108.20 T-VOR
108.25 T VOR
108.30 Localizer
108.35 Localizer
Airborne Equipment:
Aerial and receiver:
Identification:
Identification:
Course Deviation Indicator (CDI):
OBS:
TO/FROM indicator:
The FROM indicatior:
The TO indication:
CDI:
CDI:
Warning Flag:
Cone of confusion:
Opposite sense:
Frequencies:
DME Ground Speed Read Outs:
How to set up the instruments and understaning their indication; track guidance
When you are instructed to fly a certain track relative to an NDB station this is what you need to do
1. get frequency from a chart and tune it
2. identify the beacon with morse code
3. decide your position to the beacon
4. calculate the difference between your position and the track
5. decide which interception to use
6. decide the direction of first turn
7. calculate interception headings
There are two types of tracks to fly to/from an NDB
1. QDM - is the magnetic bearing to the station - QDM 270 for example means flying to the station on a track 270(M)
2. QDR is the magnetic bearing from the station - QDR 090 means flying away from the station on a track 090(M)
Homing: simply means fly direct over the station. ATC requires you to turn and fly a constant magnetic track towards the station (apply wind correction)
90/45 degree interception: if the difference between the postition and the track is more than 30 degrees
45 degree interception: if the difference is 30 degrees or less
Since the distance is big you need to get close to the track.
Fly 90 degrees to the QDM and when you are 20 degrees before turn to intercept the QDM/QDR at a 45 degrees angle.
This is a simple interception. You only need to decide which way do you need to start the turn and take a 45 degree interception track to the QDM/QDR
After deciding on the interception you need to decide which way to turn. Always turn in a direction that results in the higher ditance to the beacon upon interception. Here are some examples
For the intitial usage the same principle applies as for NDBs. However the way of obtaining position is different. After tuning and identifying the VOR turn the OBS until CDI cetralises
You can read the radial you are on at the top yellow arrow with the FR (from) indication on the instrument. If the the VOR reads TO then your position is the one at the bottom yellow arrow. Pay attention which one is showing on the instrument or turn the OBS until you get from indication.
GS indicator
CDI
Usual instrcutions indclude the radial you need and wether you need to fly IN or OUT on it.
ex.: HA-TUR FLY INBOUND ON RADIAL 270
In this case you need to fly 090 heading while homing to the station. On the instrument radial 090 needs to be set to get the TO indication.
After crossing the VOR set 120 radial and turn heading 120 to have the FROM indication and the CDI in the centre while flying away from the VOR.
This is the same interception with the same calculations as the NDB. But since the deviation scale only shows 10 degrees on either side of the centre the CDI will go out to the left or right limit when you select the radial.
It will only start moving when you come within 10 degrees of the selected radial. The speed depends on the distance from the VOR.
Another important difference is that the indication is indipendent of your heading, because it is taking the position from the VOR. The ADF however indicates the beacon position from the aircraft.
This is the same calculation again. The only difference is first you need to select the radial 20 degrees before the required radial. This will be the point where you stop the 90 closing leg and start the 45 degrees interception.
DME beacons are usually colocated with VORs or ILS glideslope antennas.
In these cases they can be tuned on the same frequency and they have the same morse idents. You don't need to tune the DME separately because the VOR frequencies and the DME channels are paired and by tuning the VOR the DME will be tuned as well so you only need to ident once.
In some aircrafts (HA-TUP) the on board equipment might not be connected to the NAV sets. In this case you tune and idnet the VOR and the DME separately.
If you suspect the DME is unservicable but you have the VOR course you can check it easily. Every 6th ident is transmitted by the DME which is higher in pitch. If that is missing the DME is u/s.
This DME is found in Tréner's IR aircrafts.
The N1 and N2 chooses which navigation set (if there is 2) is coupled with it. DME for the navaid tuned on the appropriate set will be displayed. It also calculates speed and time to the station. Both are ony valid when proceeding directly to the beacon.
The HLD (hold) permits the pilot to tune another VOR or ILS without losing distance from the previous one. The instruments hold the DME channel from the navigation set from which the knob vas turned into the hold mode. This is displayed in the upper inde next to the distance with the appropriate number and an H -> 1H or 2H
A commonly used tool in procedure design where a curved path is necessary. It appears on charts as an arc of constant distance. In practice it's made up of short straight sections.
Joining the arc might be a prescribed track or it might be left up to the pilot. You should know at what distance you need to turnto capture the arc.
Position information is taken from the VOR. First you turn in the direction of the arc 90 degrees relative to your radial. Turn the OBS until the CDI is at half deflection (5 degrees) "before" you and showing FR. Now look at the top read the radial and subtract 90 for a left arc and add 90 for a right arc. That is the heading you need to steer. When the CDI is 5 degrees behind you, repeat the above.
Holdings are used when an aircraft needs to "stop" or wait for some reason.
ATC can instruct you to hold because of high traffic, to give priority to aircraft in emergency, clearance limits and missed approaches often contain a published holding nearby the airport.
The pilot can also ask for holding for various reasons. If they need time to asses a fault or emergency situation, prepare for a special approach and landing, do a normal approach briefing, or just wait for the weather to get better.
Holdings are also called racetrack patterns because of their shape. It is defined by a fix and an inbound track. Crossing the fix a standard 180 turn (1 min) is initiated and then a 1 minute long straight follows with hte reciprocal heading of the inbound. Timing is started when abeam the beacon After 1 min another 180 turn establishes you on the inbound. This way when you cross the fix again altogether 4 minutes have passed. However above 14,000 feet the straigth parts are 1 min 30 sec long.
Holdings are designed to be low-workload procedures. Probably the most complicated part is joining the holding.
The way to join the pattern is decided based on your track towards the fix.
1. is called parallel
2. is called teardrop or offset
3. is called direct entry
This is never told by ATC you are required to fly the appropriate type.
These procedures are always designed taking into account the pilots capabilities. Every holding has a certain safety area around it which is safe for manoeuvring. It aslo has a so called minimum holding altitude. This provides clearance from obstacles. Remember: never turn onto the non holding side and never go below MHA.
On the border of teardrop and parallel entries there is a zone in which you can opt for either enty. This is the zone of flexibility and it is +-5 degree on both sides of the sector 1 and 2 entries
The standard holding is always with turns right. Non-standard holding are with left turns. The entires are also changed. Pay attention to the direction because you easily end up on the non-holding side.
Here is a fast way to determine the holding entry.