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In 1911 a monograph published by Fredrick Taylor, "The Principles of Scientific Management." The main point Taylor argued is that problems in a workplace can be solved through scientific methods . Management would find and implement solutions and collect data to conclude whether or not an increase of productivity would be recorded. Taylor hoped such methods would increase efficiency and reduce time needed for tasks. Many companies would adopt this method to maximize their profits such as the steel industry optimizing the materials and processes in the factories. Such developments created a new age of coorperate management whose main focus is the productivity of their workers which is still seen today
Darwinism is a theory created by Charles Darwin that natural selection drives evolution. Natural selection is a process of organisms in which those who are best adapted to their environment have the highest chance of surviving and reproducing. In the 20th century, these ideas were applied to society, politics, and the economy -- later on being called Social Darwinism. An excuse to the class difference of the poor and the rich was said to be from the idea that the rich were biologically and socially superior.
The topic of race was a large part of this discussion as it was said people are poor because they are racially inferior, which included immigrants. This was used a lot in politics to justify mistreatment to non-Anglo Saxon people. For example, whites belived that it was their duty to bring advancement to those in Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Phillipines as their societies were seen as less advanced.
During the19th century, Industrialization greatly transformed America with the developent of factories, and the larger differences between the poor and wealthy. These factories had long works hours, poor working conditions, and pay. These people were exploited by business owners because there was a large source of labor so if a few workers would leave there will be more to take their place. Immigrants and children often faced even worse conditions with even less pay.
Labor Unions were first formed by workers who strived to protect their rights and improve working conditions. The first of these was the National Labor Union, formed in 1866. This group wanted 8-hour work days, equality for everyone including skilled and unskilled workers, and the ability to organize. In the end this Union was unsuccesful and lost many people due to the economic panic of 1873, causing it to dissolve in 1876.
Nights of Labor, formed in 1869, was able to accumulate more members due to being more inclusive compared to NLU. Though they had the same ideas, Nights of Labor also pushed to eliminate monopolies and child labor. This group was more succesful with their strikes and laid out the foundation to future labor unions. Unfortunetly, due to the negative view of the Knights of Labor following the Haymarket Square Riot, the organization lost many members. The American Federation of Labor emerged after the collapse of Nights of Labor, carrying on the same ideas. Overall, these unions did not progress, but due to creating this new movement of advocating better working conditions created a path for continued improvement into the 20th century
A Strike is a tactic used by organized workers who refuse to work as a protest. One the first major strikes that occurred was the Great Railraod Strike of 1877. It started after the worker's wages were cut and many joined in to prevent the trains from running. In around the month that the strike lasted, commerce in the U.S was heavily disrupted. In the end it was stopped by federal troops and militia who arrested many of the strikers. Strikebreakers also played a role as they were hired by the Railroad company and assisted them during the strike. The Great Railroad Strike is an example of the government siding with these companies and the availibility of workers regardless of the working conditions.
Homestead Strike
The Homestead Strike is another example of workers fighting for better wages as the Carnegie Company wanted to cut back on costs and cut wages. As a result, the Amalgamation of Iron and Steel workers, a very large craft union, decided to organize a strike. As a response to the strike, the company performed a lockout on the workers, but they continued to stay on the outskirts of the factory. To stop them, a small army called the pinkertons were hired to drive the strikers away, which resulted in violence. The steel company succeeded in stopping the union and breaking the strike, which ultimately weakened the steel worker unions for more than 20 years.
The Pullman Strike
Workers at the Pullman Palace Car Company were enduring harsh conditions such as high rent in the town and low wages that were continously cut. Pullman refused to change anything and as a result, on May 11, 1894, workers went on strike. The American Railway Union agreed to support the workers by refusing the work with Pullman cars. Due to the strike affecting government business, president Grover Cleveland intervened with federal troops. The violence that broke out caused the public to dislike the labor movement and for the railway disruption itself. The Strike Leader, Eugene V. Debs, was brought all the way to the Supreme Court where Debs was found guilty and sent to prison. The decision of the case itself condoned the government for further suppresion of unions through injunctions.
Socialism is a system where the government owns the means of production in a democracy. Many agreed with socialist ideas as there was a want for more equality between the different wealth classes and a dislike towards capitalism. A major supporter of socialism was Eugene v. Debs, and spread socialist ideals to the public and attempted to bring socialism into government. This political party failed to gain any support other than a few industrial areas. Many believed the idea to be too radical to be accepted. The on groups of people who supported this party were immigrants and factory workers
The Homestead Act was enacted during the Civil War in 1962. It was one of the most significant events during Westward expansion. It allowed for millions of Americans including immigrants, women, and previously enslaved men to claim 160 acres of land. This was a way for the government to distribute land so that the homesteaders could cultivate the land, accelerating settlement of the western territory.
However, a very limited amount of farmers and laborers could afford to build a farm. The Homestead act had many conditions homesteaders had to follow. Some of the requirements included building a house, paying a filing fee, and living on the land for 5 years to officially claim the land, which led to many people abandoning their claims well before the 5 year mark. Consequences of the Homestead Act include overgrazing, abandonement of the claims, and pushed Native populations more west.
The Cattle Kingdom grew tremendously after the Civil War, moving into Western states in the 1870s and 1880s, following the expansion of the railroads. The most famous cattle drive was the Chisholm Trail, which went from San Antonio, Texas to Abilene, Kansas. There were free cattle in Texas, the Longhorns. Cattle was ranged in the west then slaughtered and shipped to Chicago, where the meat-packing industry was booming, in a refrigerated railroad cart. The Cattle industry was quite profitable which led to many people to become part of it. It was so profitable that it attracted investors from overseas.
A combination of factors brought an end to the cattle kingdom in the 1880s. The profitability of the industry encouraged ranchers to increase the size of their herds, which led to both overgrazing, and overproduction, an example of "Tragedy of the Commons," where the resources of common lands are depleted due to humans. As with crop production, more beef on the market and the rise of foreign competition led to declining prices. In addition to the loss of grazing land, nature took its toll. Successive harsh winters in 1886 and 1887, coupled with summer droughts, decimated the cattle herds on the Great Plains and forced ranchers to adopt new techniques.
The discovery of gold and other precious ores led many people to migrate west in the 1800s, beginning with the discovery of gold in California, at Sutter's Mill. This caused over 300,000 people to travel to California in hopes of riches. The California gold rush attracted an ethnically diverse labor force, including Chinese, Irish, Mexican, and new immigrants from southern and eastern Europe, and racial discrimination within these groups was prevalent. A decade later, new deposits were still being gradually found in the West. Gold and silver were not the only sources of wealth on the mining frontier. Lead, zinc, and particularly copper were important as well. The Anaconda Mine in Montana, where copper ore was extracted, smelted, and refined, helped make the United States the world's leading producer of copper in the 1880s. Word of a new deposit would drive prospectors to the area of discovery and a town could be erected overnight.
Most of the mines were depleted quickly, leaving ghost towns. If the deposits were rich, they'd be taken over by large, well-financed corporate mining operations. Individual prospecting was soon replaced by labor mining. The work in the mines was dangerous and the pay was usually low. This led to strikes where workers demanded higher wages, shorter hours, and better working conditions.
New territories and states were being formed in the West. It soon became clear that the settlers and Natives would not be able to coexist in the same land. Beginning in the 1860s, the federal government created reserves that the Natives were expected to settle in. However, not all tribes were willing to give up their land and ways of life. Between the 1860s and 1880s, many violent confrontations arose between the settlers and Natives that collectively became known as the Indian Wars. Since the reservation system was a failure, the government passed the Dawes Severity Act of 1887. Moreover, the policy of assimilation was often implemented through forceful tactics, including the forced removal of Native American children from their families and placement in boarding schools where they were taught to speak English and abandon their traditional ways.
The Dawes Severity Act is basically the Homestead Act, but for the Native Americans. In an attempt to assimilate Native Americans into mainstream American society, the Act broke up reservations into small parcels of land to give to individual Native Americans. The idea was that ownership of land would encourage Native Americans to adopt the customs and values of white Americans, and would also facilitate their participation in the market economy. Under its terms, the president determined the suitability of the recipients and issued the grants, usually by a formula of 160 acres to each head of household and 80 acres to each unmarried adult, with the stipulation that no grantee could alienate his land for 25 years. The Native Americans who thus received land became U.S. citizens, subject to federal, state, and local laws.
Immigration to the United States from 1865 to 1900 was largely driven by economic opportunity and political unrest in Europe. During this period, the majority of immigrants came from Germany, Ireland, and Scandanavia.
Irish immigration to the United States increased significantly between 1865 and 1900, with an estimated 2.5 million Irish people leaving their homeland during this period. There were several reasons for this migration, including economic hardship, political oppression, and the Great Famine, which had caused widespread poverty and starvation in Ireland.
The Irish immigrants who arrived in the United States during this time period were primarily from rural areas and had little education or job skills. They were often Catholic and faced discrimination and prejudice from Protestant Americans, who saw them as a threat to their way of life.
Most Irish immigrants settled in urban areas on the East Coast, such as New York City, Boston, and Philadelphia. They worked in a variety of industries, including manufacturing, construction, and domestic service. Many Irish women worked as domestic servants, while men worked in factories, mines, and on construction sites.
Between 1865 and 1900, there was a sharp surge in German immigration to the US. This movement was brought on by a number of factors, including economic hardship, political unrest, and religious persecution.
The German immigrants who arrived in the United States during this time period were typically skilled laborers, artisans, and farmers. They were also often politically and socially liberal and were attracted to the democratic values of the United States.
The majority of German immigrants settled in East Coast cities such as New York City, Baltimore, and Philadelphia as well as in states in the Midwest including Wisconsin, Ohio, and Illinois. They worked in a wide variety of industries, including agriculture, brewing, and manufacturing.
In Scandinavia, the 19th century saw significant economic and social changes, including the rise of industrialization and the decline of traditional agricultural practices. As a result, many Scandinavians, particularly those from rural areas, sought economic opportunities elsewhere.
The Scandinavian immigrants who arrived in the United States during this time period were primarily from Sweden, Norway, and Denmark. They were typically skilled laborers, farmers, and craftsmen, and were often politically and socially liberal.
Most Scandinavian immigrants settled in rural areas in the Midwest, such as Minnesota, Wisconsin, and the Dakotas, where they were able to establish successful farming communities. They also settled in urban areas such as Chicago, Minneapolis, and Milwaukee, where they worked in a variety of industries, including manufacturing, lumber, and mining.
The time period of 1865-1900 was marked by significant industrialization and technological innovation in the United States. This period is often referred to as the Second Industrial Revolution, as it saw the widespread adoption of new technologies and industrial practices that transformed American society and the economy.
Manufacturing and Industrialization
One of the most significant impacts of these technological innovations was on industrial production. The Bessemer process and other new manufacturing techniques made it possible to produce goods more quickly and cheaply than ever before, which led to increased industrial output and economic growth. The widespread adoption of electricity, the steam engine, and other new technologies made it possible to power machines and factories more efficiently, leading to increased productivity and profits.
The Bessemer Process:
The Bessemer process was a method for mass-producing steel that was developed in the mid-19th century by British engineer Henry Bessemer. The process involved blowing air through molten iron to remove impurities and create a more uniform product. The process made it possible to produce steel more quickly and cheaply than ever before, which had a profound impact on the steel industry and on industrialization more broadly.
Transportation and communication played a critical role in the industrialization of America in the period 1865-1900. Improvements in transportation infrastructure, particularly the expansion of railroads, made it possible to move raw materials and finished products more quickly and efficiently across the country. This allowed manufacturers to access new markets and transport goods at a lower cost, making it possible to sell products more cheaply and profitably. The growth of railroads also stimulated economic development and helped to connect remote areas of the country, which facilitated the expansion of industries such as mining, agriculture, and manufacturing.
Communication technology also played a crucial role in industrialization. The telegraph and telephone made it possible to communicate more quickly and effectively over long distances, which facilitated trade and commerce. Businesses could now communicate with suppliers and customers in distant locations more easily, allowing them to stay informed about market trends and respond more quickly to changing demand. The telegraph also had a profound impact on the news media, making it possible to transmit news stories rapidly across the country and leading to the growth of national newspapers and news agencies.
The growth of cities in the period between 1865 and 1900 was a major factor in the development of industrial America. During this period, the population of cities in the United States grew rapidly, due to a combination of immigration, industrialization, and urbanization. This growth had a profound impact on the lives of Americans, both in terms of economic opportunities and social changes.
The influx of immigrants to the United States during this period was a major factor in the growth of cities. Immigrants from Europe, Asia, and Latin America came to the United States in search of economic opportunity and a better life. Many of these immigrants settled in cities, where they could find work in the factories and mills that were popping up in the urban centers. This influx of people created a large and diverse population in the cities, which in turn created a demand for housing, services, and other amenities.
The industrialization of the United States was also a major factor in the growth of cities. The factories and mills that were popping up in the cities provided jobs for the immigrants and native-born Americans alike. This influx of industry created a demand for workers, and as a result, more and more people flocked to the cities in search of employment. This created a large and diverse population in the cities, which in turn created a demand for housing, services, and other amenities.
Gender roles during the Gilded Age, which spanned from 1865 to 1900, were largely shaped by traditional views of the roles of men and women in society. Women were expected to be homemakers, wives, and mothers, and their participation in public life was generally limited.
However, this period also saw significant shifts in attitudes towards women's rights and suffrage. The women's suffrage movement gained momentum during the late 19th century, with activists like Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton leading the charge. The National Woman Suffrage Association was formed in 1869 to work towards securing voting rights for women, and while the 19th Amendment wasn't ratified until 1920, the groundwork for this movement was laid during the Gilded Age.
Despite these advancements, gender inequality persisted during the Gilded Age. Women were paid less than men for doing the same work, and their access to education and employment opportunities was limited. However, the changes that were set in motion during this period paved the way for greater gender equality in the decades to come.
During the Gilded Age, religion played a significant role in American society. Protestantism remained the dominant faith, but new religious movements, such as Christian Science and Mormonism, emerged. There was also increased religious diversity, with Catholicism and Judaism gaining greater acceptance in American society. The Second Great Awakening continued to influence American culture and society, and there was a growing interest in spiritualism. Despite these changes, religion remained an important part of American life during the Gilded Age.
The rise of industrialization and urbanization led to the growth of new forms of entertainment and leisure, including vaudeville shows, amusement parks, and the circus. These new forms of entertainment offered an escape from the drudgery of everyday life, and were popular among people of all social classes. At the same time, there was a growing interest in sports, with the development of professional baseball and football leagues. These new sports were a source of national pride and identity, and helped to bring Americans of different backgrounds together.
American Imperialism
Theodore Roosevelt wanted America to be recognized as a strong military power, especially its navy. To do this, he wanted to spread their influence and control over their territory. He also wanted the United States to spend more time in global affairs and international diplomacy. His foreign policy made him put forth the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine in 1904 and 1905. This stated that European Powers should not be interfering in affairs of the western hemisphere. He promised a responsibility to protect the Americas from recolonization of European powers using their military if necessary.
During Theodore Roosevelt's presidency, he used military power to display the United States' influence and control over Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Panama. He sent naval forces to Panama to ensure that it fully gains independence from Columbia in 1901 and becomes a U.S. Canal Zone. Although the United States used military intervention is certain circumstances, they did not want to impose on the entirety of Latin and Central America. They would instead spread imperialism through Roosevelt's "Big Stick" ideology. Theodore Roosevelt's intervention in Latin America inspired the presidents who came after him to spread imperialism across the western hemisphere.
Following the sinking of the Battleship Maine in the Havana harbor on February 15, 1898, the United States officially declared war on Spain on April 25, 1898. This wasn't the only reason however as tensions were already high as America supported the ongoing struggle of Cubans and Filipinos against Spanish rule. The war lasted about 10 weeks until the signing of the Treaty of Paris on December 10th, 1898.
Throughout the gaining of territory from the war, the United States continued to establish its control and influence in the Carribean Region. Through their military power and dominance, they gained claim over Cuba from Spain. Aside from that, the Treaty of Paris also had Spain give sovereignty of the Philippines, Guam, and Puerto Rico to the United States all for $20 million. President William McKinley and his administration also used the war as a pretext for the annexation of the independent state of Hawaii. As a result, the United States spread their territory and gained the state of Hawaii from a joint decision by Congress.
There were major changes to the United States as they were struggling with their identity and nationalism from the civil war. Many industrialization and other aspects such as new immigrants and workplaces continued to reshape American Society. As the United States wanted to increase their power and influence, women sought for more knowledge and learning. This paired with new opportunities for work such as business representatives, missionaries, teachers, and more helped transmit new ideas of imperialism.
As new social and technological advancements had been made, women had gained new opportunities to spread imperialism. For example, many white women felt as though they had a duty to spready Christianity amongst those who were not as fortunate. Not all women supported imperialism however as some opposed it by joining organizations such as the Anti-Imperialist League. Black female activists also viewed imperialism as a form of racial antagonism.