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Comprehensive Model of Human Biology

Cells, Tissues/Organs, and DNA/Proteins

Components of a Eukaryotic Cell

Cells

Nucleus:

- main organelle of the cell, all genetic information; includes nucleolus (active sites for RNA synthesis).

Nucleolus:

•Largest structure in nucleus

•Produces ribosomes and transports then to cell cytoplasm

Mitochondria:

•Takes in nutrients (glucose)

•Creates energy (enough for cell to function)

Plasma Membrane:

-the “gatekeeper” -controls what enters and leaves the cell

-selectively permeable

-phospholipid bilayer

Rough ER:

- Modifies and packages proteins

- Covered in ribosomes→sent to rest of cell to use

Smooth ER:

- Creates lipids (store energy for long term use, important part of the plasma membrane) and carbs (provide energy to the body)

- Inactivates toxins

Golgi Apparatus:

- important site for packaging/distributing material within the cell and the synthesis of glycolipids.

Cytoplasm:

-”jelly-like”

-70-80% water

-”guts” of the cell

-many metabolic reactions (i.e. glycolysis) take place here

Flagella:

-”tail” used for movement of the cell

CIlia:

Moves cells or move material across the surface of cells

Ribosomes:

- Location of protein synthesis

↳enables us to have proteins in the many different purposes they serve (such as healing wounds)

Centrosome:

Are needed for mitosis and cell division

Peroxisomes:

Break down fats and other organic compounds

A single cell is a building block for an entire body’s system, carrying out every process our body needs in order to function. Over a trillion cells exist within a human body in specific roles, such as providing structure (cytoskeleton), taking in nutrients from food to convert into energy (mitochondria), carrying out specialized functions (neurons, red blood cells, etc), and contain the body’s hereditary material (nucleus/nucleolus).

Why it Matters

Inputs

& Outputs

Inputs:

- Neurotransmitters

- Ions (sodium, potassium, calcium)

- Hormones

- Pathogens

Outputs:

- ATP (energy)

- Hormones

- Cell division

- Proteins

- Carbohydrates

Effects of Physical Environment on Cells

  • Someone's physical environment can alter the functions of their cells. For example, the lack of proper nutrients/food affects how well and if cells can carry out their proper functions

Tissues/Organs in the Human Body

Tissues/Organs

Key factors involved

Epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscle tissue, and nervous tissue

Organs (i.e. heart, stomach, skin, etc.)

Work at this level and contribution to human biology

Structure/support

Tissues work together with a common function

Primary tissue with supporting or secondary tissues

Protection

To keep tissues and organ system safe and unharmed

Connection

To connect different organ systems and other parts of the body together

Communication within the different tissues is very high

Organization and functionality

Systems work together for body function

Ex: Digestive works with excretory

Ex. Respiratory works with cardiovascular

Ex: Tissues form to make organs

Basic mechanisms

Homeostasis with feedback loops directed by the nervous system

Tissues: form our body and bring parts together

Epithelial: forms membranes

Nervous and muscle: forms nervous system and smooth and skeletal muscle

Connective: forms the rest of our body

Effects of Social Environment on the Brain

The social environment that one grows up in can change the way the brain works. For example, if someone grows up in a home where emotional abuse is present, their brain can secrete more or less of a type of hormone (i.e. dopamine and serotonin

Components of DNA/RNA:

DNA

  • Made up of nucleotides (a 5-Carbon sugar (deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base (C, G, A, T)), a sugar-phosphate backbone
  • Double-stranded, a.k.a. Double helix
  • Genetic code for our cells and their activities/functions

RNA

  • Made up of nucleotides (a 5-Carbon sugar (ribose), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base (C, G, A, U)), a sugar-phosphate backbone
  • Single-stranded
  • Involved in the replication of DNA

Nucleic Acids:

  • Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) and Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
  • Building blocks of nucleotides

Nucleotides:

  • Building blocks of DNA
  • 3 parts (a 5-Carbon sugar (deoxyribose or ribose), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base)

Codon:

  • A group of three nucleotides that code for a specific amino acid

Nitrogenous bases:

  • Adenine and Guanine (purines), Cytosine and Thymine (pyrimidines)
  • A--T and G--C

DNA/Proteins

Components of Transcription

DNA polymerase:

  • Synthesizes DNA 5’ to 3’
  • Proofreads DNA
  • Adds DNA nucleotides to form RNA

DNA Ligase:

  • Joins the DNA fragments together after transcription

Helicase:

  • Opens up the DNA to be replicated

RNA Polymerase:

  • Adds nucleotides to transcribe RNA from DNA
  • Synthesizes mRNA in the 5’ to 3’ direction

Components of Translation

mRNA:

  • Provides a genetic code for proteins

rRNA:

  • Molecules of RNA that combine to form part of the ribosome

tRNA:

  • Adds amino acids to the polypeptide chain
  • Translates RNA into proteins

RNA Primase:

  • Lays down the RNA primer for DNA polymerase to find

Exon:

  • Part of the genetic code that is expressed

Intron:

  • Part of the genetic code that is removed

Work Done at This Level

Transcription:

  • DNA Polymerase catalyzes this and synthesizes DNA
  • Helicase opens up the fragments
  • RNA Polymerase adds the nucleotides for DNA to be transcribed into RNA

Translation:

  • RNA Primase lays down the primer
  • mRNA is created and describes the genetic code for proteins
  • tRNA translates the RNA into proteins by adding amino acids to a polypeptide chain
  • DNA is replicated from RNA strands which were transcribed through other DNA
  • Nitrogenous bases come together to create DNA and codons
  • Codons are coded by tRNA to create amino acids
  • The amino acids form together to create a polypeptide chain
  • Polypeptide chains create proteins
  • Proteins can be synthesized from a singular mRNA molecule

How Components Interact to Complete Work

Results of Work Done

  • DNA is replicated and is able to pass on genetic information to other cells, this is important for cell division
  • Proteins are created to build and repair tissues; to make enzymes, hormones, and other chemicals; it is an important building block in many body components

Signals/Information/Inputs for Regulation

  • The amount of proteins (too much or too little) can signal the inhibition or promotion of gene expression and protein synthesis
  • Environmental conditions, such as temperature and oxygen levels, can affect regulation
  • The presence of introns affects the regulation of gene expression and protein synthesis because the more introns there are, the long it take to transcribe and translate a gene

Changes at the Genetic Level

Genetic Changes

  • Genetic mutations can happen as a result of environmental changes or mistakes make during transcription or translation
  • Ex) Radiation, such as from atomic bombs or x-rays, can damage genetic material and can cause mutations to occur. These mutations can change the way that genes are expressed and can increase one's risk of cancer, heart disease, difficulties with reproduction, among many others.
  • Genetic mutations can alter the way codons are read and can either cause significant changes or no changes at all
  • Ex) A point mutation (GAG to GTG, Glutamic acid to Valine) on the hemoglobin-beta gene on chromosome 11 causes red blood cells to change shape from rounded to crescent shaped which affects the way the blood flows through the blood vessels. Therefore, this mutation has significant changes on how the genetic code is translated.
  • Ex) If the codon AAA changes to AAG, it still codes for the amino acid, Lysine. Therefore, there is no significant changes in the way the genetic code is translated.
  • Cells store DNA in the nucleus
  • DNA codes for proteins
  • Rough ER makes proteins
  • Golgi Apparatus packages proteins
  • Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis
  • Environmental conditions in the cell affect DNA transcription/translation and protein synthesis

Connections between cells and DNA/Proteins

  • Cells make up tissues and organs
  • i.e. Epithelial cells make up membranes
  • Many organs and organ systems receive messages from the neurons in the Nervous System
  • Nutrients received though organs and organ systems are absorbed by cells and are used to make energy

Connections between Tissues/Organs and Cells

Connection between DNA/Proteins and Tissues/Organs

  • Each organ has its own set of DNA that is coded for the specialized function of that specific organ
  • DNA is housed in the cells that form tissues and organs
  • DNA mutations can significantly impact the function(s) of organs, but sometimes these mutations don't affect them at all
  • i.e. A point mutation (Glu to Val) can cause sickle-cell disease in the blood
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