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Transcript

W. K. Clifford

1877

"The Ethics of Belief"

What is Clifford's central claim?

"...It is wrong always, everywhere, and for any one, to believe anything upon insufficient evidence" (295).

The Ethics of Belief

What makes our beliefs morally right or wrong?

Morality and belief acquisition

According to Clifford, it is

  • not the content of our belief
  • not whether the belief is true or false
  • but "how [we] got it...[and] whether [we] had a right to believe on such evidence as was before us" (290)

Doubt

What if we have good reason to doubt our beliefs?

Then we also have good reason--and a moral responsibility--to patiently investigate whether we have sufficient evidence for those beliefs.

Duty

What is our duty with regard to our beliefs?

"No simplicity of mind, no obscurity of station, can escape the universal duty of questioning all that we believe" (293).

We thus have a responsibility to challenge and investigate not only others' beliefs but also our own beliefs.

What specific moral vice or virtue might Clifford be identifying here?

"If a man, holding a belief which he was taught in childhood or persuaded of afterwards, keeps down and pushes away any doubts which arise about it in his mind, purposely avoids the reading of books and the company of men that call in question or discuss it, and regards as impious those questions which cannot easily be asked without disturbing it; the life of that man is one long sin against mankind" (295).

Epistemic virtue

Justification

When are our beliefs justified?

What conditions must they meet in order for them to be justified?

Do different kinds of beliefs have different justification conditions?

Science

For each scientific claim, we should consider its:

  • Inductive strength
  • Conformity to natural laws
  • The equipment used to arrive at this claim

Scientific claims

History

These beliefs and inferences are "less complete and exact" than our scientific beliefs (308).

As such, we should consider:

  • the historian's motivations
  • trustworthiness and credibility of the historian
  • laws of nature

Historical claims

Testimony

We must take into account the person's:

  • Veracity (propensity for telling the truth)
  • Knowledge (relevant expertise)
  • Judgment (method of belief acquisition)

Belief and Morality

Moral Responsibility

According to Clifford, it is morally wrong--not simply epistemically irresponsible--to maintain a belief without sufficient evidence for that belief.

Important Passages

"We may believe what goes beyond our experience, only when it is inferred from that experience by the assumption that what we do not know is like what we know.

We may believe the statement of another person, when there is reasonable ground for supposing that he knows the matter of which he speaks, and that he is speaking the truth so far as he knows it.

It is wrong in all cases to believe on insufficient evidence; and where it is presumption to doubt and to investigate, there it is worse than presumption to believe" (309).

Discussion

Do you think that conspiracy theories are the result of too much doubt or too much credulity? Moreover, is there a morally relevant difference between a conspiracy theory and a conspiracy?

Discussion

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