Introducing
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The first seeds of forensic psychology were planted in 1879, when Wilhelm Wundt founded his first lab in Germany. Since then, the field of psychology has blossomed with contributions.
- Conducted some of the earliest research on the psychology of testimony.
- Found a surprising degree of inaccuracy, inspiring other psychologists to conduct their own experiments on eyewitness testimony.
- The fact that eyewitnesses were unsure of themselves raised serious issues about the validity of their usefulness in court.
- Replicated Cattell's research and studied the results of other psychology experiments that applied to law and criminal justice.
- His work in intelligence testing was also important to the development of forensic psychology, as many future assessment tools were based on his work.
- In one of his experiments, he asked students to summarise a dispute they had witnessed between two classmates.
-He discovered that errors were common among witnesses and concluded that a person's emotions could affect how accurately they remembered things.
- His research yielded several findings.
1. Suggestive questions could compromise the accuracy of eyewitness reports.
2. There are major differences between adult and child witnesses.
3. The events that occur between the original event and its recall can dramatically affect memory.
4. Lineups aren’t helpful unless they are matched for age and appearance.
During this time, psychologists were beginning to act as expert witnesses in criminal trials throughout Europe.
In 1896, Albert von Schrenck-Notzing testified at a murder trial about the effects of suggestibility on witness testimony.
Hugo Munsterberg
- The German-American psychologist’s belief that psychology had practical applications in everyday life also contributed to the development of forensic psychology.
- In 1908, Munsterberg published "On the Witness Stand", a book advocating the use of psychology in legal matters.
Lewis Terman
- Stanford psychologist Lewis Terman began applying psychology to law enforcement in 1916.
- After revising Binet’s intelligence test, the new Stanford-Binet test was used to assess the intelligence of job candidates for law enforcement positions.
William Marston
- In 1922, psychologist William Marston found that systolic blood pressure had a strong correlation to lying.
- This discovery would later lead to the design of the modern polygraph detector.
The case of Frye VS USA
- Marston testified in 1923 in the case of Frye VS USA
- This case is significant because it established the precedent for the use of expert witnesses in courts.
- The Federal Court of Appeals determined that a procedure, technique, or assessment must be generally accepted within its field in order to be used as evidence.
Significant growth in forensic psychology did not happen until after World War II.
Psychologists served as expert witnesses, but only in trials that weren’t perceived as infringing on medical specialists, who were seen as more credible witnesses.
In the 1940 case of People VS Hawthorne, the courts ruled that the standard for expert witnesses depended on how much the witness knew about a subject, not whether the person had a medical degree.
In the landmark 1954 case, several psychologists testified for the plaintiffs and the defendants. Later, the courts gave support to psychologists serving as mental illness experts.
Forensic psychology has continued to grow and evolve during the past three decades.
Increasing numbers of graduate programs offer dual degrees in psychology and law, while others offer specialized degrees emphasizing forensic psychology.
In 2001, the American Psychological Association officially recognized forensic psychology as a specialization within psychology.
Nowadays, there are four places of custody in Malta:
The Corradino Correctional Facility (CCF)
The Substance Abuse Therapeutic Unit
The Valletta Lock-Up below the Malta Law Courts
The Forensic Unit (Mount Carmel Hospital.)
The Corradino Correctional Facility (CCF) in Paola, is the main prison compound in Malta.
1820: Issuing of the first prison regulations.
1842: The building of the Corradino Correctional Facility started, supporting the English criminologist Jeremy Bentham’s idea that criminals should not only be punished but also kept for correction.
1999: The Juvenile Division (within CCF) started running.
2003: The Remand Section started running. In this part of the facility, prisoners who are admitted to prisons but have not been yet condemned by the Maltese Courts are kept.
2012: The first psychologist was employed within the Department of Probation.
Keep prisoners in custody.
Maintain order, control, discipline and a safe environment.
Provide decent conditions for prisoners and meet their needs, including health needs.
Provide positive regimes which help prisoners address their offending behaviour.
Help prisoners prepare for their return to the community as responsible citizens.
This Unit caters for people in need of specialist psychiatric care who have a criminal sentence. There are wardens and protocols to guide professionals during the course of the patients’ care. Nurses within the unit provide general nursing care and elevated supervision, observe, administer and monitor the treatment.
Vision Statement:
“The Department of Probation and Parole aims at enhancing community safety by reducing recidivism utilising restorative justice measures.”
Mission Statement:
“To help ensure social stability by contributing to minimise the frequency of crime and by ensuring the re-integration of offenders to functional societal frameworks. To ensure that the myriad of services offered will address the needs of the Criminal Justice System.”
Until the early nineteenth century, the criminal justice system in Malta was primitive. Professor Nicola Zammit proposed that the system of punishment should be reviewed and that punishment should be tailored to fit the offender, not the crime.
1854: The criminal code was implemented and a system of punishment was established.
1944: H.M. Commissioner of Prisons for England and Malta, Alexander Paterson proposed two major innovations: the release of offenders on licence (parole system) and the introduction of the Probation Services.
1955: Probation services were partially integrated.
1957: The enactment of the Probation of Offenders Act.
1961: The first probation order was issued.
1993: The University of Malta organised a post-qualification diploma to train individuals as probation officers.
1996: A group of qualified probation officers were engaged as social workers within this Department.
2002: The Probation of Offenders was revised and renamed Probation Act.
5th July 1943: The final execution at the Corradino Prison.
4th October 1971: The abolition of capital punishment from the Criminal Code.
May 2002: Malta confirms Protocol No. 13 to the European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, on the abolition of Death Penalty in all circumstances, bringing the death penalty to a complete end in Malta.
Warranted Forensic Psychologists in Malta:
1. Holland Roberta
2. Caruana Vella Sharon
3. Kevin Sammut Henwood
4. Avellino Chantal
5. Fava Cassar Jeanette
6. Attard Joseph Matthew
7. Chatlani Denise
1995: The first psychologists were officially employed with the government in Malta. The first psychologists to be employed were Clinical and Health Psychologists.
1996: Roberta Holland was the first Maltese psychologist to specialise in the area and the first Forensic Psychologist to be employed with the Correctional Services in Malta. This was around the same time when Forensic Psychology was first practiced in England (Forensic Psychology as a modern profession).
It is important to note that the branch of Forensic Psychology was not yet official in Malta as only Clinical and Health Psychology where recognized by the government.
2012: Forensic Psychology was recognized as an official branch of psychology in Malta along with other branches such as Educational and Counselling Psychology. Similarly, the first official call for Forensic Psychologists was in 2012.
2012: Chantal Avellino was the first Forensic Psychologist to work in the department of probation.
2013: Kevin Sammut Henwood started working in the same department and together they offer psychological services for those on probation. These services vary from assessment to intervention.
They have also piloted the first offending behavior program in Malta where they aim to reduce the offending behavior. They piloted the first anger management program in 2014/15 and they are currently piloting two other programs: The sex offender treatment program (individual basis) and another prigram regarding cognitive skills (on a group level).
Research in this field of psychology is somewhat lacking. The following is a list of articles worth reading:
1. Sammut Henwood, Kevin & Chou, Shihning & Browne, Kevin. (2015). A systematic review and meta-analysis on the effectiveness of CBT informed anger management. Aggression and Violent Behavior. 25B. 280-292. 10.1016/j.avb.2015.09.011.
2. Sammut Henwood, Kevin & Dominic Browne, Kevin & Chou, Shihning. (2018). A Randomized Controlled Trial Exploring the Effects of Brief Anger Management on Community-Based Offenders in Malta. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology. 62. 785-805. 10.1177/0306624X16666338.
Bartol, C. R., & Bartol, A. M. "History of Forensic Psychology." The Handbook of Forensic Psychology (pp. 1–27). 2005. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Cattell, J. M. "Measurements of the Accuracy of Recollection." Science, Dec 6, 1895;2(49):761–6.
Stern, L.W. "The Psychology of Testimony." Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. 1939; 34(1);3–20.
Benjamin, L.T., & Baker, D.B. (2004). The psychological profession in the 21st century: New practice specialties. From Séance to Science: A History of the Profession of Psychology in America (pp.200-204). California: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.
Buttigieg, J. (2013). Capital Punishment: Is it a Deterrent? GħSL Online Law Journal.
Corradino Correctional Facility . (n.d.). Retrieved from homeaffairs.gov.mt: https://homeaffairs.gov.mt/en/MHAS-Departments/Corradino-Correctional-Facility/Pages/CCF.aspx#1
Correctional Services in Malta. (n.d.). Retrieved from gov.mt: https://www.gov.mt/en/Services-And-Information/Business-Areas/Law%20Enforcement/Pages/Correctional-Services-in-Malta.aspx
List of Registered Psychologists. (n.d.). Retrieved from family.gov.mt: https://family.gov.mt/en/The-Ministry/Documents/Register%20of%20Warranted%20Psychologists%20(March%202018).pdf
Ms Roberta Holland. (n.d.). Retrieved from L-Università ta' Malta: https://www.um.edu.mt/profile/robertaholland
Probation and Parole Services. (n.d.). Retrieved from homeaffairs.gov.mt: https://homeaffairs.gov.mt/en/MHAS-Departments/Probation-Services/Pages/Probation.aspx
Daniela Pulis
Shanice Borg
Julia Ann Fenech