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"overt or covert personal dialogue in which the athlete interprets feelings, perceptions, and convictions and gives himself instructions and reinforcement." (Hardy, Gammage, & Hall, 2001)

Sport-Specific Examples

The What of Self-Talk

Hardy et al. 2001

Take-homes

Structure

The Where & When of Self-Talk

cues, phrases, sentences

Hardy et al. 2001

Where?

Task Instruction

The Why of Self-Talk

technique, encouragement, mood elevation

Hardy et al. 2001; Zinsser et al. 2006

When?

kinesthetics/skill acquisition ("smooth" "remember")

breaking bad habits (“follow through”)

initiate action (“explode”)

arousal regulation (“easy” "let's go")

effort regulation (“keep going” "give it all" "save some")

build confidence (“I can do it")

  • Building & developing self-efficacy
  • Skill acquisition
  • Creating & changing mood
  • Controlling effort
  • Focusing attention or concentration

“We don’t need anymore techniques in sport psychology. We need athletes to use the techniques we already have.” - Bob Rotella (Singer & Rotella, 1996).

  • Self-talk has 2 main functions: motivation & instruction
  • Match your inner thoughts with what you're doing (fine or gross motor skill?)
  • "Write your own highlights nightly"

-Dan Gould

outcomes

(emotional, behavioral)

event

self-talk

(rational, irrational)

How does self-talk influence behavior?

First step in changing self-talk =

self-awareness

(introspection, observation, keeping logs)

Comparisons of Mental Training Effects on Sport Performance

Arousal regulation (Meyers et al., 1996)

d = 0.73 – 1.23

Imagery (Hinshaw, 1991; Meyers et al., 1996)

d = 0.57 – 0.68

Self-Talk (Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2011)

d = 0.48

Goal setting (Kyllo & Landers, 1995)

d = 0.34

Self-Talk and Sports Performance: A Meta-Analysis

Hatzigeorgiadis et al (2011)

Method:

  • 32 studies
  • only self-talk (no combination interventions)

Research Questions:

  • What is the overall effect of self-talk on sport performance?
  • Does matching self-talk to type of skill matter?
  • Well-learned or novel tasks?
  • Will beginners benefit more than experienced athletes?
  • Does self-selection of cues matter?
  • Does "overtness" matter?
  • Is training/guided practice beneficial?

Results...

1. Type of talk = No differences b/t instructional and motivational self-talk on performance (d=.55 vs .37; not statistically different).

2. Matching hypothesis supported: instructional more effective for fine tasks than for gross motor tasks; instructional > motivational for fine motor

3. Task novelty = slightly better than well-learned tasks (d=.73 vs .41).

4. Experience level = no differences

5. Training = significant predictor (d=.80 vs .37)

6. Assigned vs. free-choice = no difference

7. Overtness = no difference

Characteristics of Self-Talk

Overtness

Valence

Self-Determined?

Functions

Frequency

Definition

& Cognitive Re-Framing Negative Thoughts

Irrational & distorted self-talk

Perfectionism “I must do this perfectly”

Catastrophizing “It’s over if I lose”

Self-worth Validation “I’m nothing if I can’t even do this well”

Personalization “If I had made that play, we wouldn’t have lost”

Blaming “If it wasn’t windy, rainy…”

One-trial generalizations “I never play well at night”

Psychological Strategies

  • Thought stoppage - consciously recognize negative thought (trigger - i.e., snap fingers)
  • Reframing – changing the perspective; e.g., provide context, or changing negative self-talk to positive or instructional self-talk
  • Countering assumptions - necessary when athlete still believes the negative thought. Uses facts and reasons to counter negative thought
  • Others?
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