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Some opposed the king and were beheaded, among them Thomas More, the king’s chancellor and author of Utopia.
• The English church retained traditional Catholic practices and doctrines such as confession, clerical celibacy, and transubstantiation.
• Most clergy and officials accepted Henry’s moves, but in 1536 popular opposition in the north led to the Pilgrimage of Grace, a massive rebellion that proved the largest in English history
• After her Father’s, Henry VIII, and her brother’s, Edward VI, deaths, a Catholic Mary Tudor reinstated Catholicism as England’s Religion.
• After Mary Tudor’s death, Elizabeth I made England switch back to being Protestant and her reign inaugurated the beginnings of religious stability.
• Elizabeth I’s execution of the Catholic Mary, Queen of Scots, the person next in line for the throne, caused Philip II to send the Spanish Armada to England -> The battle in the English Channel-> English Victory!
1. The Christian church had experienced periodic calls for reform prior to Luther’s rebellion. Why did Luther’s challenge to the sale of indulgences spark such a startling revolution in European history?
2. Although the Protestant Reformation usually is interpreted as a religious movement, it did have a profound impact on European civilization in general. Discuss the political, social, and economic consequences of the Reformation. How did the Reformation affect women?
3. How did the established Christian church, headquartered in Rome, respond to the challenge presented by Luther and subsequent Protestant reformers? How successful was this response?
4. According to the text, Luther did not ask new questions but offered new answers to old questions. What were these questions, and what were Luther’s answers?
5. What were the political motivations for European rulers to join the Protestant Reformation? Give specific examples of the links between politics and the Reform movement.
6. According to the text, the English Reformation was an act of state, initiated by the king’s emotional life, and by dynastic and political concerns. How accurate is this assessment? What were the long-term consequences of the English Reformation?
7. How do the actions of both Protestant and Catholic leaders exemplify the basic political creed of uniformity prevalent in Europe in the sixteenth century?
• John Knox (1505–1572) dominated the reform movement in Scotland and was determined to establish a state church modeled after the church in Geneva
• Knox persuaded the Scottish parliament to end papal authority and instead establish governance by presbyters, or councils of ministers.
• The Presbyterian Church of Scotland was strictly Calvinist in doctrine and emphasized preaching.
• Pope Paul III (pontificate 1534–1549) became the center of the reform movement
• In 1542 Pope Paul III established the Holy Office, with jurisdiction over the Roman Inquisition, which had the power to arrest, imprison, and execute suspected heretics.
• Pope Paul III also called a general council to meet at Trent from 1545 to 1563 to reform the Catholic Church
• Results of Council: Gave equal validity to Scripture and Tradition as sources of religious truth and authority, reaffirmed the sacraments and the teaching of transubstantiation, suppressed pluralism, forbade the sale of indulgences.
• For the first time, great emphasis was laid on preaching and instructing the laity, especially the uneducated.
• The Council of Trent stipulated that for a marriage to be valid, the marriage vows had to be made publicly before a priest and witnesses.
Eucharist-> A memorial in which Christ was present in spirit among the faithful but not actually in the bread and wine.
Eucharist-> Christ present in in the consecrated bread and wine as a result of God’s mystery, not the words of a priest.
• Charles V of the Habsburg Dynasty fell heir to a vast and incredibly diverse collection of states and peoples, each governed in a different manner and held together only by the person of the emperor
• Charles V believed that it was his duty to maintain the political and religious unity of Western Christendom.
• Almost everyone believed that the presence of a faith different from that of the majority represented a political threat to the security of the state; few believed in religious liberty.
• Charles V was a vigorous defender of Catholicism, so it is not surprising that the Reformation led to religious wars.
• The Colloquy of Marburg, summoned in 1529 to unite Protestants, reached agreement on almost every issue except an important one concerning the Eucharist, or communion.
• New Religious Orders founded to raise the moral and the intellectual level of the clergy and the people
• Two most famous orders:
• Ursuline order of nuns founded by Angela Merici
• The Society of Jesus or Jesuits by Ignatius Loyola
• Switzerland: part of the HRE but made up of 13 largely autonomous territories: “cantons”.
• Some cantons were Catholic and others Protestant. Late 1520s, two sides went to war
• Zwingli was killed on battlefield in this war.
• War ended with a treaty
• To halt spread of religious division, Charles V called an Imperial Diet in 1530. Lutheran statement of faith (Augsburg Confession), presented to the emperor.
• 1555 - Charles agreed to Peace of Augsburg: permitted the political authority in each territory to decide whether the territory would be Catholic or Lutheran.
• No freedom of religion within the territories, and dissidents had to convert or leave.
• With no further hope of uniting his empire under a single church, Charles V abdicated in 1556 and moved to a monastery, transferring power over his holdings in Spain and the Netherlands to his son Philip and his imperial power to his brother Ferdinand.
• By the middle of the 16th century, people of all social classes had rejected Catholicism and become Protestant
• Luther’s success and fame is attributed to the invention of the Printing Press, which rapidly reproduced and made known his ideas, and his incredible skill with language.
• Luther’s dialect of German became the standard written version of the German language because of his translation of the New Testament into German in 1523
• Individuals may have been convinced of the truth of Protestant teachings by hearing sermons or reading pamphlets, but a territory became Protestant when its ruler, whether a noble or a city council, brought in a reformer or two and took action against the church.
• John Calvin: Born in Noyon, France
• Believed that God had specifically selected him to reform the Church. So he left France for Geneva.
• The Institutes of the Christian Religion (1536): the absolute sovereignty and omnipotence of God and the total weakness of humanity.
• Predestination: Men and women cannot actively work to achieve salvation; rather, God in his infinite wisdom decided at the beginning of time who would be saved and who damned.
• Calvinism became the compelling force in international Protestantism, spreading throughout the continent of Europe
• England’s break with Rome arose out of King Henry VIII’s (r. 1509–1547) desire for a new wife, though ultimately his own motives also combined personal, political, social, and economic elements.
• Henry’s marriage to Catherine of Aragon had produced only one living heir, a daughter, Mary. 1527- Henry appealed to the pope to have the marriage annulled so that he could marry Anne Boleyn, who he hoped would give him a son.
• Pope Clement VII—under pressure from Charles V, who was the nephew of Catherine of Aragon and thus was vigorously opposed to an annulment—took no action on Henry’s appeal.
• Henry removed the English church from papal jurisdiction and made himself the supreme head of the church in England.
• Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531)= Most important early reformer other than Luther (Picture)
• Swiss humanist, priest, and Admirer of Erasmus
• Convinced that Christian life rested on the Scriptures (relied upon Erasmus’ New Testament) which were the pure words of God
• Attacked the Catholic selling of indulgences, the Catholic Mass, monasticism and clerical celibacy
• The followers of Luther, Zwingli, and others who called for a break with Rome came to be called Protestants
Protestant: the name originally given to all Lutherans, which came to mean all non-Catholic Western Christian groups.
• Spurred to public action by his objection to the sale of indulgences. Luther nailed his “Ninety-five Theses” to the door of the church at Wittenberg Castle on October 31, 1517.
• He argued that indulgences undermined true Christianity.
1. Dominus et magister noster Iesus Christus dicendo ,Penitentiam agite etc.' omnem vitam fidelium penitentiam esse voluit.
1. When our Lord and Master, Jesus Christ, said "Repent", He called for the entire life of believers to be one of repentance.
• German University Professor and Priest
• Augustinian Friar
• Through his study of Saint Paul's letters in the New Testament, he gradually arrived at a new understanding of Christian doctrine.
• “Faith alone, grace alone” -> concluded that only simple faith in Christ led to salvation.
• During this time, Pope Leo X authorized the sale of a special Saint Peter’s indulgence to finance his building plans in Rome.
Indulgence: a document issued by the Catholic Church lessening penance or time in purgatory, also widely believed to bring forgiveness to all sins.
• The archbishop , Albert of Mainz, had Dominican friar, Johann Tetzel, run his indulgence sale in Wittenberg.
• Luther took advantage of the printing press by letting his ideas be published -> ideas spread rapidly.
• Luther’s positions brought him into conflict with the church and he was eventually excommunicated.
• At Emperor Charles V’s Diet of Worms in 1521, Luther refused to recant his beliefs.
Anticlericalism: opposition to the clergy
Pluralism: the clerical practice of holding more than one church benefice (or office) at the same time enjoying the income from each.