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1. Contextual and situational knowledge

"I forgot to buy candles at the grocery store"

- "candle": 1) for the birthday of your friend); 2) due to power outrage

2. Schema: plans about the overall structure of events and the relationships between them that are stored in the listener's long-term memory (Richards, 1990) -> relating to our real world experiences and how we expect people to behave and events to occur.

" your number is 14" at a fast food restaurant

- "14": there are '13 people to be served before me.

Psychological Processes and Developing Listening skills:

Bottom-up and Top-Down Processing

Psychological Process

Developing Skills

Goal and Exercise

Bopttom-Up Processing

1. Scanning to input to identify lexical items

2. Segmenting the stream of speech into constituents-e.g. in order to recognize that "abookofmine" consist of four words.

3. Using phonological cues to identify the information focus in an utterance

4. Using grammatical cues to organize the input into constituents- e.g. in order to recognize that in "the book which I lent you" [the book] and [which I lent you] are the major constituents rather than [the book which I] and [lend you].

(Richards, 1990)

Examples of Bottom-Up Processes

- Focuses on individual components of oral discourse

- Comprehension: a process of decoding messages processing from sounds to words to grammatical relationships to lexical meanings  bottom to top

Goal and Exercise

Top-Down Processing

Besides Knowledge of Discourse Topics

- Focuses on macro-features of discourse (e.g. speaker’s purpose and the discourse topic)

- Comprehension: a process of activating the listener’s background information and schemata for a global understanding of the message  top to down

- “Involves prediction and inferencing on the basis of hierarchies of facts, proposition, and expectations, and enables the listener or the reader to bypass some aspects of bottom-up processing.” (Richards, 1986, pp. 114-115)

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