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Sources

  • http://oldsite.granvillecsd.org/teacherswebs/Aubrey/Cell%20Organelle%20Chart.htm
  • http://www.nature.com/scitable/popular-discussion/1000
  • http://www.diffen.com/difference/Eukaryotic_Cell_vs_Prokaryotic_Cell
  • http://www.edu.pe.ca/gray/class_pages/rcfleming/cells/notes.htm
  • http://biology.tutorvista.com/animal-and-plant-cells.html
  • http://faculty.clintoncc.suny.edu/faculty/Michael.Gregory/files/Bio%20102/Bio%20102%20lectures/Prokaryotes/prokaryo.htm
  • http://waynesword.palomar.edu/lmexer1a.htm
  • Nearly 100% of this was from the books information

Essay: Differences in organelles between plant cells, animal cells and bacterial cells.

Essay: How structure fits function and how organelle functions in relation to other organelles.

All eukaryotic cells contain most of the same organelles, the only difference in organelles is if the cell is plant, animal or a bacterial cell. For the most part plant and animal cells are similar. The only things separating them are the plastids, chloroplast, and centrioles. Plant cells contain plastids, which makes sense because they have chloroplast. Plastids are primarily for storage and manufacturing of food. Chloroplast are vital for them because it is needed for photosynthesis, a process that animal cells do no require. They perform cellular respiration though, which is why they both have a mitochondria. Centrioles are only found in animal cells because they are necessary for the animal cells to form flagella and cilia. Also, unlike animal cells, plant cells find other ways of organizing there microtubules. Plants use the same methods of organization as animal cells, just without the centrioles. However the case is different for bacterial cells. Bacterial cells only have four organelles in common with the plant and animal cells, they are the cell membrane, the cell wall, flagella, and ribosomes. Bacteria have nothing in common with plant or animal cells because they are prokaryotic cells, while plant and animal cells are eukaryotic.

The significance of structure and function of organelles within a cell dictates its life span and quality/effectiveness of its ability to carry out the function its assembled to do. The Endoplasmic reticulum has a special structure, it consists of two regions, the rough and smooth ER, which specialize in different functions due to their different structures. The rough ER is studded along its surface from ribosomes. These ribosomes help the rough ER to perform protein synthesis. The smooth ER, on the other hand, synthesizes lipids, metabolizes carbohydrates, and detoxifies drugs or poison from our cells/ bodies. We could probably assume that we would find an abundant amount of smooth ER in our liver. The Golgi apparatus has a helpful structure as well. The GA contains a "cis" and a "trans" face. The cis face is responsible for receiving proteins and specific nutrients from the ER. On the other hand the trans face will ship nutrients or proteins to other locations. The GA also is made up of membranous sacs which separate it from the cytosol, which is benefical so it can store certain nutrients or wastes. These two organelles function in relation to eachother as well. They make a prime example of organelle relations. The ER contains two regions : Rough and Smooth. The Rough ER synthesizes secretory proteins like insulin (hormone), glycoproteins, and even membranes by combining phopholipids and proteins. Once transport vesicles are ready, they leave from the rough ER region. The transport vesicles then travel to the Golgi apparatus, specifically it's cis face. The GA is extensive in secretion cells, like the cells in your pancreas. The GA then proceeds to store, transport and organize its shipment from the rough ER. Without these two organelles transport vesicles would have less of a purpose and important proteins wouldn't be able to reach important locations. Another example of organelles and their relationships together would be the nucleus and the nucleolus, along with ribosomes and many other organelles. The nucleolus is found inside the nucleus, technically making it apart of its structure. Without the Nucleus containing nuclear pores the ribosomes synthesized components wouldn't be able to leave the nucleolus. This would affect other organelles greatly, like the rough ER, which has a structure studded with the ribosomes.

Cells: Structure Fits Function

Any organelle with a white line attached to it means it is present in animal cells. Any organelle with a red line means it is present in prokaryotic cells. Any organelle with a blue line means it is present in plant cells.

Chloroplast

Plant Cells

Animal Cells

Membrane-bound organelle and the site of photosynthesis and ATP production in autotrophic plant cells. Chloroplast is very closely related to plastids. As stated above chloroplast is the site of photosynthesis, this is because it absorbs sunlight and uses it in conjunction with water and carbon dioxide.

Plastids

Prokaryotic Cells

Plastids are plant organelles. Often found in leaves or in other green plant organs, as well as in eukaryotic algae. Plastids mainly manufacture and store chemical substances. Some examples of them would be Amyloplasts and Chloroplast.

Centrioles

Plant Cell Wall

Nonmembrane-bound organelles that occur in pairs (made of groups of microtubules) just outside the nucleus of animal cells. Centrioles are made in the centrosomes. During cell division (mitosis and meiosis) a pair of centrioles moves to each end of the cell, forming the poles of the mitotic spindle. Centrioles also give rise to basal bodies that control the origin of cilia and flagella in motile cells of protists.

On the outside of every plants plasma cell membrane, there consists of a cell wall made out of cellulose. Cellulose is a structural polysaccharide. This wall protects the plant cell, maintains its shape, and prevents excessive uptake of water. The plant as a whole is actually held up against gravity by the cell walls. A young plant cell will first secrete a relatively thin and flexible wall called the primary cell wall. Between primary walls of adjacent cells is the middle lamella, a thin layer rich in sticky polysaccharides called pectins. The middle lamella glues the cells together. When the cell matures and stops growing, it strengthens its wall. Some plant cells do this simply by secreting hardening substances into the primary wall. Other cells add a secondary cell wall between the plasma membrane and the primary wall. The secondary wall often deposited in several laminated layers, and has a strong durable matrix that affords the cell protection and support.

Intracellular Junctions

Intracellular junctions help integrate cells into higher levels of structure and function. The specialized connections made by these junctions are commonly found in epithelial tissues, which line the internal surface of the body. The junctions also keep the contents of certain areas together. A good example of this would be the contents of the intestines being kept separate from body fluids.

Plasma Membrane

Extracellular Matrix (ECM)

At the boundary of every cell, there is a plasma membrane that functions as a selective barrier. This barrier can allow the passage of Oxygen, nutrients, and wastes. For every square micrometer of the membrane, only so much of a particular substance can cross it. Eukaryote's have extensive internal membranes which partition the cell. All membranes consist of a bi layer of phospholipids. Proteins play a significant role in letting molecules/substances pass in or out of the membrane. There are integral (embedded) and Peripheral (superficial) Glycoproteins. These proteins function differently as: Transport proteins, enzymatic activity, signal transduction, inter cellular joining, cell-cell recognition, and attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix (ECM).

The main ingredients of ECM's are glycoproteins secreted by the cells. The glycoprotein collagen is most abundant in animal cells. Collagen forms strong fibers outside the cells. The collagen fibers are embedded in a network woven of proteoglycans (another class of glycoproteins). Other glycoproteins attach cells like fibronectins, which bind to receptors called integrins. Integrins are all along the plasma membrane and are in position to transmit changes in the ECM to the cytoskeleton (vice-versa as well). The ECM can regulate a cells behavior. An example of this would be how cells in a developing embryo migrate along specific pathways by matching the orientation of their microfilaments to the grain of fibers in the ECM.

Centrosomes

Cilia

Prokaryotic cell wall

A centrosome is an organelle that serves as the main microtubule organizing center, and are small organelles located close to the nucleus. During cell division the centromere organizes the assembly of the micro-tubules. Centrosomes can make centrioles.

Instead of cellulose, the staple of plant walls, most bacterial walls contain a unique material called peptidoglycan, which consists of polymers of modified sugars cross-linked by short polypeptides. Gram stain can be used to separate many members of the domain bacteria into two groups based on differences in their cell walls, into Gram-Positive or Gram-Negative. These refer to the amounts of peptidoglycan within the cell walls. Many prokaryotes secrete sticky substances that form another protective layer called a capsule outside of the cell wall.

Cilia is similar to Flagella, except it is merely shorter. The functions of cilia include locomotion for one-celled organisms and to move substances over cell surfaces in multi-celled organisms. More abundant than Flagella.

Cytosol

Cytosol is a semi-fluid medium that makes up the cytoplasm, in which organelles are located.

Pseudopodia

Golgi Apparatus

Flagella

Mitochondria

Actin and myosin play a role in ameboid movement, where a cell crawls along a surface by extending and flowing, which is called pseudopodia. Pseudopodia extend and contract through the reversible assembly of actin subunits into microfilaments and of microfilaments into networks that convert cytoplasm from sol to gel. Pseudopodia are used to engulf "prey" for nutrients. Without them our cells would have to adapt to knew conditions.

Peroxisomes

Once transport vesicles are completed, they will travel to the Golgi Apparatus from the ER. The Golgi Apparatus acts as a center for manufacturing, shipping, warehousing, and sorting. ER products are modified and stored, until they are sent to other destinations. The GA is especially extensive in cells specialized for secretion, like Insulin. The GA consists of cisternae (flattened membranous sacs). The cisternae membranes separate their internal space from the cytosol. On the opposite ends of the GA there are "cis" (receiving) and "trans" (shipping) faces. Cis faces are usually found near the ER. Lumen and vesicle membranes are added the cis face when the vesicle buds fuse to the GA. The GA modifies oligosaccharides, making them more diverse.

Mitochondria are sites of cellular respiration, the catabolic process that generates ATP by extracting energy from sugars, fats and other fuels, with the help of oxygen. The number of mitochondria within a eukaryotic cell, correlated with the cells metabolic activity. The mitochondria is enclosed in an envelope of two membranes, each a phospholipid bi layer with a unique collection of embedded proteins. The outer membrane is smooth, but the inner membrane is convoluted with infolding's called cristae. The inner membrane divides into two compartments, the first is the inter membrane space (narrow region between the inner and outer membranes). The second compartment, mitochondrial matrix, is enclosed by the inner membrane. Some metabolic steps of cellular respiration occur in the matrix, where many different enzymes are concentrated. Special proteins like enzymes that assemble ATP are built into the inner membrane. Cristae give the inner mitochondrial membrane more surface area that enhances the productivity of cell respiration. -Structure fits function

The functions of flagella include locomotion for one-celled organisms and to move substances over cell surfaces in multi-celled organisms. Flagella is less abundant than Cilia in a cell though. Flagella is larger than Cilia, though they are practically identical.

Peroxisomes are specialized metabolic compartments bounded by a single membrane. Peroxisomes contain enzymes that transfer hydrogen from various substrates to oxygen, producing hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) as a by-product. Peroxisomes are used for many functions such as, breaking down fatty acids for fuel in cellular respiration or detoxifying harmful compounds in your liver. Peroxisomes contain an organelle that converts H2O2 into water (H2O). Peroxisomes grow by incorporating proteins and lipids from the cytosol, and then split in two to increase their numbers.

Ribosomes

Ribosomes are the sites where the cell makes proteins. Cells that have high rates of protein synthesis have a particularly large number of ribosomes. The ribosome is composed of large and small subunits separated by a central groove. Ribosomes build proteins in two cytoplasmic locales. Free ribosomes are suspended in the cytosol. Bound ribosomes are attached to the outside of the membranous network called the endoplasmic reticulum. Most of the proteins made by free ribosomes will function within the cytosol. Bound ribosomes generally make proteins that are destined either for inclusion into membranes, for packaging within certain organelles such as lysosomes, or for export from the cell. Bound and free ribosomes are structurally identical and interchangeable, and the cell can adjust the relative numbers of each as its metabolism changes.

Nucleoid region

Vacuole

Nucleolus

Nucleus

In most prokaryotes, the DNA is concentrated as a snarl of fibers in a Nucleoid region that stains less dense (than the surrounding) cytoplasm in electron micro graphs. This mass of fibers is actually the prokaryotic chromosome (One double stranded DNA molecule in the form of a ring). In addition to its one major chromosome, the prokaryotic cell may also have much smaller rings of DNA called plasmids, most only consisting of a few genes.

Vacuoles are fluid filled organelles enclosed by a membrane. They can store materials such as food, water, sugar, minerals and waste products. In plants there is a central vacuole. Cells in the vacuoles perform functions of secretion, excretion and storage.

The Nucleolus is found within the Nucleus. This is where components of ribosomes are synthesized and assembled. These components are then shipped through nuclear pores, to the cytoplasm. A nucleolus is roughly spherical, and through the electron microscope it appears as a mass of densely stained granules and fibers adjoining part of the chromatin.

The Nucleus contains most of the genes that control the Eukaryotic cell. The Nuclear Envelope encloses the Nucleus, and separates it from the Cytoplasm. A Nuclear envelope is a double membrane (Lipid bi layer), and is perforated by pores that are around 100nm in diameter. On each pore there is a Pore Complex, which regulates entries and exits of large macromolecules through the membranes. At the lip of each pore the two membranes of the Nuclear Envelope are fused.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Lysosomes

The Endoplasmic Reticulum is a membranous labyrinth. The ER consists of a network of membranous tubules and sacs called cisternae. There are two distinct, but connected regions called the Smooth ER and the Rough ER.

Lysosomes are small sac-like structures surrounded by a single membrane and containing strong hydrolytic digestive enzymes which when released can break or digest macromolecules or worn down organelles and food. Lysosomes function in intracellular digestion. Lysosomes also use their hydrolytic enzymes to recycle their own organic material (autophagy). Lysomal enzymes also program the destruction of cells (Ex. Tadpole -> Frogs). Their are diseases that come with Lysosomes like lysomal storage diseases.

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

Smooth ER of various cell types functions in diverse metabolic processes, including synthesis of lipids, metabolism of carbohydrates, and detoxification of drugs and poisons. Enzymes of smooth ER are important to the synthesis of lipids, including phospholipids and steroids.

Appears rough through the electron microscope because ribosomes stud the cytoplasmic surface of the membrane. Rough ER creates secretory proteins, most of which are glycoproteins (produced by the ribosomes on the membrane). A good example would be the protein insulin. The ER membrane keeps these secretory proteins separate from normal proteins. The Rough ER is also known as a membrane factory. The Rough ER can grow membranes by combining proteins and phospholipids together. The ER membrane can be transferred in the form of transport vesicles to other components of the endomembrane system.

Cytoskeleton

The Cytoskeleton gives cells shape, anchors certain organelles, and directs movement of other organelles. (Cell Motility) The Cytoskeleton is made up of Microtubles, Microfilaments, and Intermediate filaments. Intermediate filaments isn't always necessary though.

Microtubules

Microtubules are found in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells. The wall of the hollow tube is constructed from a globular protein called tubulin. Each tubulin molecule consists of two similar polypeptide subunits; alpha and beta tubulin. Microtubules elongate by adding tubulin molecules to its ends. They can be disassembled and reconstructed anywhere within the cell. They shape and support the cell and also serve as tracks along which organelles equipped with motor molecules can move. Microtubules are also involved in the separation of chromosomes during cell division (primarily in anaphase).

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