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GROUP 5

CAS-06 401 A

Glorie II P. Solano

Mary Charmene Diaz

Elaine David

Alysa Ilagan

Mianca Prado

Jeramy Baluntong

Magdalena Zulueta

Submitted to: Dr. Elena Paragas

It was Rationalism that tried to debunk these previous theories. It emphasized that reason, innate ideas and deductions guide knowledge. Self-awareness was highlighted. Descartes’ set the foundation for Psychology as an introspective science and for understanding that observable behavior was meaningful. Rational-Emotive Therapy, Cognitive Therapy, and Cognitive Behavior Motivation may have been influenced by this philosophy.

Empiricism underscored that experience was the source of knowledge and that learning was a process of accumulating a series of sensory experiences. This led to an understanding of cause-effect relationships and associations. This may also underlie the basic tenets of Behavior Modification.

Positivism concentrated on natural phenomena or facts that were objectively observable. The value of sensory experiences as the source of human knowledge supported Empiricism. Positivists believed that Social Sciences should be founded on the study of positive knowledge gathered through objective observation and definition of experience.

Existentialism focused on the uniqueness of human beings and highlighted this as the only reality. Therefore, subjective reality became more important than objective reality. Human freedom was recognized, with its use seen as particular to every individual. Rogers and Frankl must have based their theoretical beliefs and practices on these.

Every counseling practitioner should have a philosophy of human beings and how their problems evolve in order to establish a philosophy of helping. The goals that should be pursued, the role that the counselors should play, the techniques that could be employed, and the steps that must be taken must be based on such a philosophy and must then be a part of one’s counseling Philosophy.

Foundations of Guidance

Various disciplines provide the basis for Guidance and Counseling to respond effectively to needs and concerns brought about by certain conditions within the individual, the family, the environment and society at large.

Philosophy

The field of philosophy has asked significant questions that led to the understanding of what a human being is and how he/she must be handled. This is why Philosophy is a very important foundation of Guidance and Counseling.

Lupdag (2007) has very succinctly summarized the Philosophical Foundations and I am interspersing his summary with the currents in the field of Guidance and Counseling.

In the early years, two major concerns plagued the deep thinking people: the mind-body question and human nature.

Monism believed that there was only one underlying reality- the mind or the body, but not both. Dualism contended that both existed. The nature-nurture controversy figured in these discussions. Questions of how much of behavior was learned or acquired through experience with the environment and how much of it was instinctual or not learned arose. Since Guidance Principles see individuals holistically, these beliefs have to be settled in the mind of the practitioner if a comprehensive program is desired.

The concern on human nature also sparked a lot of controversies. Materialism believed that humans were entirely physical and Determinists asserted that all human choices were determined by the laws of nature. Believers of Mechanism propounded that human beings were slaves to nature and like machines, they could be known totally and completely. Freud, the father of Psychoanalysis upon which Psychoanalytic Counseling was based and Skinner, the father of Behaviorism upon which Behavioral Counseling was built must have been very much influenced by these beliefs.

New Job Titles

With the changes in fields of concentration and the demands of the industrial and corporate worlds, new job titles have also come about. While some more specialized fields call on people to make more specific choices in preparation, other job titles do not require specific academic preparations. More information is needed, however, regarding the nature and demands of the new jobs, so that those interested in them can pursue the appropriate field of study.

Since the job market has opened the door for people trained in vocational-technical work, getting into a vocational-technical course instead of a degree program has become an option.

Lack of Job Possibilities

Unfortunately the proliferation of job titles does not mean that there is a job for every job seeker. Jobs are not easy to find. In fact, many still take up the traditional courses introduced in the 50’s or the 60’s even if the field is already saturated. Some job-seekers simply lack the appropriate preparation, personality, aptitudes and skills.

For want of gainful employment some graduates are forced to accept just any job. This can cause unhappiness or nomadic movement from job to job. The dissatisfaction and unhappiness at work can lead to confusions and loss of self-esteem.

The inability to find a job also creates frustration among the youth. Their dependency on the family continues, and individuation may be delayed. Furthermore, reactions from family can lower the already fragile self-esteem of the job-seeker.

Increasing Course Options and Educational Attainment

In the 1950s and 60s, only a few career possibilities existed. People usually had to choose between going to college or not. Those who went to college had only Commerce, Engineering, Architecture, Law Education, Medicine, Nursing and Journalism to choose from. Then came new fields like Medical Technology, Mass Communication, Hotel and Restaurant Management in the late 60s and early 70s.

The 1980s swathe birth of a wide range of specializations and sub specializations. The brochures of the University of the Philippines and the College of St. Benilde show quite a variety of possibilities. With the emergence of the computer and the benefits derived from information technology, demand for computer related courses increased, prompting schools and colleges to offer various fields of concentration. In fact schools with special focus on computer technology were established.

Faced with more choices, students are confused as to where to go for college. Parents have become misguided as well, leading their children to courses which they believed would generate the biggest income. With so many course titles, students can hardly keep up with what course to take for what kind of work. Yet, they have to be aware of the possibilities available to them.

How far to go in one’s formal studies has also become a concern. More employers in industry and in the corporate world are placing a premium on graduate studies for the employees holding responsible positions. This gives those with a Master’s degree an advantage. Those who want a career in the academe are expected to earn a doctoral degree.

More recently short term courses that prepare the student for medical transcription, caregiving, and call center work have also come to the fore.

New Trends in Permanency and Tenure

Business used to put a premium on seniority, but the cost of maintaining senior employees or the displacement by technology has caused many companies to offer handsome packages for early retirement every now and then. Some companies are forced to close down or retrench employees in order to survive. The untimely retirement or job loss creates sudden shifts in finances and, consequently, lifestyle that families have to cope with. Mothers or children might have to take over from the father who lost his job. The moods of family members, especially the one who lost the job, would require adjusting to.

To save on salaries, many companies only hire contractual. This causes people to keep looking for new jobs and to keep adjusting. Promotions are rare and people have less to look forward to in terms of growth and financial stability. The situation creates insecurity when the next job is hard to find, prevents people from establishing the roots of friendship and feelings of belonging, and deprives them of the successes so essential for building self-esteem and movement towards self-actualization.

Although there are new jobs that have recently become available, the lack of fit between the job and the person’s goal, needs, values and interests is a problem. Call Centers provide a lot of job opportunities, but turnover is fast because of this lack of fit. Despite the financial rewards, there is dissatisfaction in other areas. The lack of socialization in the workplace, the constant exposure to complaints, the drudgery, and the ungodly hours are a source of discontent.

Outsourcing- where a company hires an agency to get people to accomplish a task – is becoming a common practice. Dreams die because of this. There are parents who raise their children with a future employer in mind. People also take pride in being part of well-known corporations. With outsourcing now an option, some job aspirants are not employed by the company itself and cannot, therefore, affiliate with it, even if they are involved in its business.

The Family Situation

Family life has changed. Within the family, the physical, intellectual, emotional, social, and spiritual needs of children are initially met and nurtured. It is within the family that questions are answered, errors are corrected, and problems are heard and dealt with. If in past, the home was a place of refuge and a source of strength, this is no longer seems to be the case.

Here are some conditions the Filipino family has to contend with today.

The Disappearing Family

Many married couples separate because husband and wife cannot get along. Many children are left to their own devices because their parents are trying to earn a living abroad or out-of-town. Or children, while living with their parents, hardly see them because they are too busy earning a living or trying to pursue their own happiness. With the exception of financial support for those who can afford it, children are increasingly excluded from their parent’s lives. Many children have no parents to turn to for emotional support and guidance. They feel unwanted, unloved, unworthy, lost and confused. They are not properly guided because they believe that parents are too preoccupied to listen or to respond to them or are too obstinate to understand. Some have the impression that all their parents care about is that they pass their courses. Some children of absent parents even have to assume the role of parent to their younger siblings. No one is around to give them feedback for the right or wrong they do.

The Guidance Program became a necessity in the United States after the Second World War, when those who were involved in the war suddenly found themselves with nothing to do. They needed to retool themselves through further studies and they needed new jobs. Proper guidance had to be extended to them in order to facilitate decision-making and action.

The Need for Guidance Services

Furthermore, life for the Americans was no longer what it used to be. There was increased mobility in society; more marriages and families were breaking down; traditional sources of advice and guidance were disappearing; and more advances in science and technology were taking place. People needed something more organized and systematic to help them deal with change.

At the time Guidance Programs were introduced in the Philippines, these conditions were only minimally present in the country. But the Philippines have changed by leaps and bounds since the inception of formal Guidance Programs in the 1950s. A greater demand for Guidance Services has arisen as a result of prevailing conditions, which demand more attention as the years go by. What are some of these conditions?

What is Guidance

Guidance Programs

The What and Why

Definition

Guidance and Counseling has been defined in the Rules and Regulations (RR) of Republic Act 9258, Rule 1, Section 3 (Manila Standard, 2007), as a profession involving an “integrated approach to the development of a well-functioning individual primarily by helping him/her to utilize his/her potentials to the fullest and plan his/her present and future in accordance with his/her abilities, interests and needs.”

Through the years, in many countries, the Guidance Program has been seen as a system of services designed to improve the adjustment of each and every person for whom it was organized.

The RR declares that Guidance and Counseling includes counseling, psychological testing, research, placement, referral and group processes. Gibson and Higgins (1966) include the above services in their enumeration, but not learning and study orientation and the teaching of guidance and counseling subjects. They, however, describe other services not mentioned in the RR. Below is their brief description of each.

5. Placement- the facilitation of the clientele’s movement to the appropriate educational or occupational level or program; entry into the appropriate co-curricular and extra-curricular activities; pursuit of further education or other employment upon leaving the institution.

6. Referral- the tapping of agencies, organizations, or individuals that may be of better assistance in the counselee’s resolution of problems and attainment of full potential.

7. Follow-up- the appraisal of how counselees who have been counseled, placed, or referred or have graduated are doing, to determine whether further assistance is necessary.

8. Evaluation- the determination of whether the services offered have attained their objectives and are meeting the needs of the clientele; the personnel have satisfactorily performed their functions; and facilities have been adequate.

1. Individual Inventory/Analysis – the collection of extensive information about the individual for proper understanding, decision-making and placement.

2. Information- the comprehensive and systematic collection and dissemination of information outside the individual through various methods and programs to assist students in their personal, educational, and occupational planning.

3. Counseling- the dynamic personal interaction between a counselor and counselee/s, where the counselor employs methods, approaches or techniques to enhance the counselee’s intrapersonal and interpersonal development and competencies.

4. Research- the attempt to unearth the needs of the institutional community; establish the need for improvement; validate new strategies, techniques and interventions; and discover different alternatives for attaining goals.

Basic Principles

The development, establishment, and maintenance of the Guidance Program is based on certain principles. Gibson and Mitchell (1991) and Crow and Crow (1951) summarized these.

The Guidance Program is an integral part of the educational system.

1. Guidance is a fundamental and integral part of the educational system. It provides for the holistic development of the students.

2. Education and guidance support and complement each other to maximize student’s growth and development.

3. Administrative and faculty understanding and support of the Guidance Program are crucial to its success.

4. Guidance personnel perform specific tasks distinct and separate from teaching and disciplining.

It is responsive to the students’ needs.

1. The Guidance Program addresses the developmental and adjustment needs of the students.

2. The Program considers the unique culture and climate of the specific population and environment it serves.

3. Program offerings are based on regular, systematic assessment of the students’ needs and environment.

The following which have been added on as separate services in the recent years were initially treated as part and parcel of every service of the Guidance Program.

9. Consultation- the mutual sharing and analysis of information with the administration/management, faculty, and parents to facilitate decision-making and learning about strategies for helping the counselee (Shertzer and Stone, 1981).

10. Program development- the assessment of needs, planning, and provision of a systematic program for the delivery of services.

11. Public relations- the explanation of guidance roles and functions, programs and services, and benefits to insiders and outsiders.

Counseling used to be considered as one of the services- the heart- of the Guidance Program. Authorities in the past recognized its special and unique contribution by using the popular label “Guidance and Counseling.” The one conducting Guidance and Counseling services was called Guidance Counselor. And the office that dispensed all the services was called the Guidance office.

Later materials abroad would refer to the ”School Counseling Program” or “Counseling Program” while the other services were also mentioned, it seemed, that the other Guidance Services were considered only as support or auxiliary services.

In the Philippines, Guidance and Counseling is still the popular label. The office is still called Guidance Office or Guidance Department in many schools. For the purposes of this book, Counseling is considered the major service of a comprehensive and systematic program for helping individuals address the changing demands of the different developmental stages, understand themselves and their environment, resolve issues and problems, and develop their potential optimally. The term Guidance Program is used to encompass all the services and activities intended to realize these goals.

Many national organizations concerned with the continued improvement of Guidance Program and Services have been born since 1932: The Philippine Guidance and Counseling Association (PGCA); the Philippine Association for Counselor Education, Research and Supervision (PACERS); and the Career Development Association of the Philippines (CDAP). Smaller organizations have been set up in different regions and localities. Other organizations not specifically for Guidance, but more for responding to psychological needs, have been offering workshops and seminars to enhance counselors’ and psychologists’ effectiveness in working with clients.

The most significant development in recent years came in the form of RA 9258. The passage of the law in 2004 has made it imperative for all Guidance Counselors and Psychometricians to secure a license before practicing. A Professional Regulatory Board for Guidance and Counseling was constituted in 2007 with Rhodella L. Gabriel as the first Chairperson, and Luzviminda S. Guzman and Lily Rosales as members.

The PGCA, as the oldest and biggest association of guidance counselors, spearheaded the professionalization of counselors, pursued the passage of the Law, worked in the ratification of the implementing rules and regulations. It thus became the interim accredited professional organization.

4. Guidance is a continuous process throughout the person’s stay in school.

5. Guidance activities are specifically planned and developed to ensure Program effectiveness.

6. The Guidance team consists of the school counselor, psychologists, social workers, teachers, administrators and other educational professionals and staff who work together for the welfare of the students.

7. The Guidance Program recognizes the need to provide objective evidence of accomplishments and the rationale for its continued existence.

It recognizes the student as an individual and its premised on the following:

1. Every individual has needs that must be attended to.

2. Guidance should be extended to all.

3. Every individual is unique and possesses worth and dignity.

4. Human beings can develop their own insights.

5. All individuals have the right and capability to make decisions and plans.

The Program is in the hands of qualified personnel.

1. The school counselor is a role model of positive human relations.

2. Professionally trained guidance personnel are indispensable for ensuring competence, leadership, and direction.

Why Guidance

Like many practices in Philippine education, the Guidance Program was developed in the United States and brought to the Philippines as a formal set of services by Filipinos who had studied in the U.S in the 1950’s. Prior to that, some services, which later on came to be known as Guidance Services, were already offered for the purpose of attending to needs observed in school clientele. They have been mentioned in several other books written by Filipinos. To complete the picture, I include a bit of historical background derived from various sources- Clemena (1991) and Fernandez (2000).

While helping others is second nature to many Filipinos, it was only in 1932 that formal guidance set-up was started. This was the year Sinforoso Padilla started a Psychological Clinic as a response to the cases of student discipline, emotional concerns, and academic and vocational problems that he encountered. His clinic operated until 1941.

Shortly after this introduction, counseling tests were introduced as a service to the clientele of non-school settings: the convicts in New Bilibid Prison in 1934 and the residents of Welfareville in 1939. In school year 1939-1940, a Dean of Boys and a Dean of Girls were selected among members of the faculty of four public high schools in Manila and assigned to attend to the behavior and conduct of students referred to them. They also served as student advisers who assisted the administration in handling cases of discipline and irregular class attendance. The concerns were personal, social, or educational in nature.

In 1945, the first Guidance Institute was held at the National Teachers College. This gave birth to the Guidance Association of the Philippines. Subsequently, teachers from the Bureau of Public Schools were sent for observation and study tours in the United States. The Association, in coordination with UNESCO, was able to bring in specialists from the U.S.

Aware of the need to assist students in selecting their courses, activities, occupations, friends, future mates; to guide them in their work at home and in school; and to help them solve their personal problems. Congress proposed the establishment of functional guidance and counseling programs in 1951. This proposal bore fruit in 1952 when the Division Superintendents of schools recommended the establishment of Guidance Services in the public schools.

The next year, 1953, the Philippine Association of Guidance Counselors was organized to study the needs, interests, and potentialities of the youth and to establish a Testing Bureau.

Since then, elementary schools have had to provide at least one guidance counselor. Accrediting associations have also required the provision of Guidance Services.

The most systematic pioneering program was not in the school setting, however. It was in the Guidance section of the United States Veterans Administration where Filipino Psychologists, like Sinforoso Padilla, Jesus Perpinan, and Mr. Roman Tuason worked with Americans who were aware of the growing concerns among Filipinos. Nevertheless, Estefania AldabaLim who, along with Brother Justin Lucian of De La Salle University and Sr. Liguori del Rosario of St. Scholastica’s College, was a founding member of the Philippine Guidance and Personnel Association, introduced and systematized the Human Relations Program in the Philippine Women’s University and propagated its use throughout the Philippines. Sr. Liguori del Rosario also ventured to offer a Bachelors course in Guidance and Counseling at St. Scholastica’s, while other institutions offered a Masters course in the field.

The Unready Family

Partly as a result of the disappearing family, many young adolescents get into early marriages or parenthood that they are unprepared for. Many of these marriages eventually break up, and the unprepared couples become the parents in disappearing families. If the partners continue to live together, that has a lot of fights, sometimes violent ones. The children not only lose role models and peace of mind. They may become the target of the violence themselves. Furthermore, they may be left in the care of other people who do not necessarily love them the way they need to be loved or who cannot respond to their need for security, belonging, and identity.

The Pathological Family

Because of the absence of nurturance and supervision as well as the emotional, physical, and verbal abuse that they may have experienced, many children from the disappearing and unready families grow up with unresolved issues or become pathological. They carry their issues and pathology with them and often use the marital arena to wage their battles. They become batterers or substance abusers. They may even engage in incestuous relationships. They dodge their obligations and claim rights which they do not have. They hurt their families and raise their children with a lot of difficulties.

Many children belonging to disappearing, unready, or pathological families manifest symptoms that could be a cry for help. They display disruptive or inappropriate behavior as children. They may become quarrelsome or attention-seeking. They lose concentration or focus and as a result, underachieve. They become belligerent and stubborn. They may experience psychosomatic ailments. Some turn to false cures like drugs and alcohol and manifest maladaptive behaviors. If they assume the responsibility for the family, they may become angry or depressed because they feel robbed of their youth. Those exposed to violence grow in fear of violence or become violent themselves.

Many of these children grow up into adults whose marriages do not work out. And the cycle is repeated.

The Complexity of Living

Besides the pressures on the family, there are other conditions in the Philippines that make day to day living more complex.

Increased Mobility of Filipinos

The lure of life abroad has led to course selection based not on what the person is qualified for or would be satisfied with. The prospect of entry into a foreign land that promises material advancement has become the driving force. That the individual makes the decision himself can be mitigating. Unfortunately, parents and other significant others may impose the pursuit of courses that the individual does not care for or does not have the aptitudes for. Failure may be the outcome. Feelings of being trapped, boredom, depression in the work place may set in when the desire for money is minimized. Nursing, Education, Special Education are some of the fields that rose in popularity in the early 2000’s because of the demand abroad.

It used to be that many children grew up in the place where they were born and studied in the same school where they started out as kids, at least until high school. Because of migration, however, many more children today move from one place to another. They have to adjust not only to the new neighborhood, or the new school but sometimes also to the new culture. They are uprooted and planted in another soil, away from the relatives they have loved so much and friends they have invested their emotions on. The adjustment is complicated by the pain of loss and their anger about the situation.

Economics force many Filipinos to work abroad or out of town. Children and spouses are left behind and hardly see the working person. Families are no longer as intact as desired.

On the other hand, there are also Filipinos who return to the Philippines after having relished the culture and upbringing in another country. Re-entry and re-adjustment problems are another matter to content with. More restrictions, closer supervision, and increased meddling from others are a source of concern for the young, on addition to the search for new relationships, frustration with lack of facility in the language, and having to cope with the seemingly more demanding educational system.

Anthropology, particularly Social and Cultural Anthropology, is another foundation of Guidance Programs. Since it concerns itself with the scientific study of the origin, the behaviour, and the physical, social, and cultural development of humans, it provides fundamental information on aspects of living that must be considered in understanding and dealing with the client’s needs. Anthropology provides counselors with insights into the cultures of peoples, cultures that in turn provide guidelines for the behaviors and viewpoints of their members. Cross-cultural counseling and multicultural counseling could be an offshoot of the realization that the individual can only be appropriately understood and comprehensively helped if the impact of his/her own culture on his/her being, passions, characteristics, attitudes and behaviors are thoroughly appreciated.

Sociology is the study of the social life of individuals, groups and societies. Like Social Psychology, it is interested in the behavior of social beings. Social Psychology may be more concerned with the individual in society, but sociology focuses on understanding social rules and processes that connect and separate people not only as individuals, but as members of associations, groups, and institutions. Sociology tries to determine the laws governing human behavior in social contexts. It is concerned with all kinds of group activities: economic, social, political and religious. While sociologist study such areas as bureaucracy, community, family, public opinion, social change, social mobility, and social stratification, they also look into more counselling specific problems such as crime, deviant behavior,divorce, child abuse, and substance addiction. Sociology helps counselors understand human groups and their influence on human behavior.

Crimes

Crimes like assault, kidnapping, hold-ups and rape traumatize not only the victim but entire families as well. Added to the pain are feelings of betrayal-when the perpetrators are known to and trusted by the victim-fear, anger, and the desire for revenge.

Increasing Financial Difficulty

The increasing financial difficulty experienced by many Filipinos is a source of instability among family members. Joblessness can cause lowered self-esteem. Insufficient funds can cause a lot of quarrels between parents that disturb the child. There may be no money for the children to meet requirements of student life – tuition fees, school supplies and the experiences that young people enjoy. Some students are forced to stop their studies and resume only when funds become available.

Increasing Possibilities of Experiencing Crisis

All human beings go through crises at some points in their lives, brought about by their developmental stages. For this reason, the guidance goals and programs attend to the person’s developmental needs. But there are also unforeseen critical situations which may traumatize a person.

Calamities

In recent years, more and more man-made and natural calamities have occurred. People have lost their homes through earthquakes, typhoons and floods, landslides, volcanic eruptions, and the like. The sudden loss of everything one had brings emotional insecurity and financial loss on a long-term basis. Changes in lifestyle would be a major consequence and post-traumatic stress disorders are likely.

The impact of man-made disasters like mining accidents, fires, and vehicular accidents may not be as extensive as that of natural calamities. The loss may not be as great but the effects may be the same, because of the unexpectedness of the event.

Learning and Other Disorders

Parents and educators today are intrigued by the behavioral or learning disorders found in children- autism, ADHD, dyslexia, which seemed minimal or remained undetected in the early years of the Guidance movement. The adults concerned go into crisis upon discovery, especially when they do not have the skills needed to handle such cases.

Other disorders- bipolar, obsessive-compulsive, depressive- seem to be on the rise. Some may not be easily discernible but when they do surface, people may not be ready to deal with them.

Since the time of Dr. Padilla, and his colleagues, life has become more complicated, uncertain, dangerous. People have more needs and wants. The normal adjustment problems to which the counselor must attend are so dwarfed by the current concerns that they may no longer be considered problems.

The subsequent pages present the services and activities that may be responsive to the growing needs. While Guidance Services may seem like a luxury in the face of the economic situation in the country, a program that responds to the needs of the clientele may be its own contribution.

Psychology

Gibson and Mitchell (2003) affirm the foundations of Guidance and Counseling as largely derived from the field of Psychology. Counseling theories and process, standardized assessment, individual and group counseling techniques, and career development and decision-making theories they say, are contributions of Psychology.

General Psychology, of course, lays the foundation for understanding human behavior. The study of motivation, perception, and cognition helps professionals understand a person’s goals and sheds light on how he/she perceive, thinks, and learns. Since a person’s behavior is affected by or is a manifestation of these, a working knowledge of these areas are indispensable for deciding on and implementing the most appropriate and effective strategies.

A counselor would be able to understand the developmental stages and tasks and the concerns and adjustments that must be attended to through the contributions of the specialty area of Developmental Psychology. Critical stages over the life span--- what happens to individuals as they grow and change--- are understood better in light of Developmental Psychology.

Counselors who handle students can also have a better grasp of educational and learning concerns and the best way to respond to them if they have a background in Educational Psychology. This field of study is concerned with theories of the relationship between learning and human growth and development. In fact, Behavior Modification techniques are based mainly on social learning theory, which highlights the importance of focusing on reinforcement rather than punishment.

Social Psychology deals with the impact of social situation on individuals and their behavior. It recognizes that the larger environment, not just the home, shapes the individual. Social Psychology helps to explain the actions of a person in relation to other persons and the different interpersonal behavior events. It uses the findings of General Psychology to show how people perceive other persons and groups, how they develop their social goals, and how they learn to behave socially. Alfred Adler’s Individual Psychology is particularly helpful because it maintains the fundamental need of the individual is to become socially significant and that the goal of counseling should be to move the person towards social interest.

Ecological Psychology did not exist as a separate field when the Guidance Movement was born. However, Gibson and Mitchell (2003) include it as a Foundation--- and rightly so--- because of observations and findings that individuals are shaped by, and in turn influence their environments. Barker(1968, in Wikipedia) contented that human behavior was radically situated and that predictions about human behavior can only be made if one knew the situation or context or environment the individual was in. Also known as Environmental Psychology, the field examines the interrelationship between human behavior and environments--- social settings, built environments, learning environments and informational environments and everything natural on the planet (De Young, 1999). It looks into a model of human nature that predicts the environmental conditions under which humans will behave decently and creatively as a basis for designing, managing, protecting and/or restoring environment that enhance reasonable behavior, predict the likely outcome when certain conditions are not met, and diagnose problem situations. Environmental Psychology includes the study of attention, perception and cognitive maps; attitudes and values as they relate to the environment; preferred environments; environmental stress and coping; participation and conservation behavior. These help determine intervention techniques for promoting environmentally appropriate behavior.

Biology, the science of life and living organisms, including their structure , function, growth, origin, evolution, and distribution describes human beings and explains them on the basis of the biological and cultural characteristics of the population to which they belong. It explains the vital processes of human beings which impact on their thoughts, feelings, behaviors, plans, and goals, social relationships and more –areas which counselors must attend to, if assistance is to be holistic. Biology helps understand the human organism and its uniqueness. Wellness and prevention are based on biological findings. Human sexuality finds a strong linkage with biology and human sexuality needs to be dealt with in understanding the major facets of a human being.