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"Roofwalker" Continued

The end of the novel mirrors the moment of European settlement. “I waited for Dad to catch me, for the roofwalker to throw back his head and open his mouth, letting my dream float up from his throat into the breeze while rolling away from Lake Michigan” (27). While the ending is unclear, the tone from the previous passage mentioned makes it highly likely that her father does not come to catch her. She makes it clear that she only had faith as a small child, not any other part of her life. For Jessie, the fall is the moment where she finally gives in and stops believing—regarding the tales as little more than the Easter bunny or Santa. But this one moment of being suspended in the air—where anything is possible, good or bad—is the moment where the Europeans could have been decent human beings. It is that moment where they could have chosen to respect another peoples’ beliefs. However, they did not. Thus the fall happens and takes with it all hope.

This loss of self and of stories is also addressed in the story. “It used to be that your people knew who they were and what was expected of them. From the time they were born, each day was a lesson… But we have gone through many things and now it’s difficult to find the right road” (10). When traditional stories were common place, they would teach people how to be the best possible versions of themselves. They knew who they were and where they came from. However, after colonization, those stories were viewed by mainstream society as lesser and after integration, many were lost. With these stories vanished parts of history and thus part of the indigenous peoples themselves.

"Aunt Moon's Young Man" Continued

"Roofwalker" by Susan Power

"Roof Walker" by Cameridan-Hero

"Claire" Continued

The ones that are not outlawed are often looked down upon by mainstream culture. “Bess made tonics, remedies, and cures. The church women, even those who gossiped, slipped over to buy Bessie’s potions at night and in secret. They’d never admit they swallowed the ‘snake medicine,’ as they called it” (273). Though alternative medicine has grown popular in the last several years, herbal tonics are still often claimed little more than ‘snake oil.’ However, modern medications don’t always work—most have horrendous side effects, ranging anywhere from internal bleeding or vomiting to death. These side effects can sometimes be worse than the original ailment. This is depicted in the story when the women betray Aunt Moon “and they began buying their medicines at the pharmacy. It didn’t matter that their coughs returned and that their children developed more fevers. It didn’t matter that some of them could not get pregnant when they wanted to…They wouldn’t dream of lowering themselves to buy Bessie’s medicines” (277-278). Because mainstream pharmaceutical companies cater to the larger audience, they cannot customize their drugs to individuals. So, they will not work as well—that or they will be extremely toxic if not taken properly. However, because Aunt Moon can look at patients as individuals and then create a medication, she is able to tailor the remedy to the individual. “Aunt Moon dried medicine herbs in the manner of her parents. She knew about plants, both the helpful ones and the ones that were poisonous in all but the smallest doses” (268). Because she is customizing the dosage for a single person, she is also able to use many more plants that in larger doses would be poisonous. Pharmaceutical companies would never be able to use them for fear of a batch of medicine may have the wrong dose.

"Aunt Moon's Young Man" Continued

Worse than this is the treatment that these patients receive. “Claire walked to the desk and told them Mrs. Krenshaw was seriously ill. They acted as though they hadn’t heard her. She thought of calling an ambulance but knew there would be big trouble for both Matilda and herself if she dared do that” (92). After Mrs. Krenshaw’s death, her body lays in bed for four hours before the caretakers finally take it away. The elderly are treated like animals or small children—inconveniences and little more. Claire describes her situation, stating that “[s]he never dreamed she would spend her old age in the same way she had spent most of her childhood, under lock and key, keeping her guard up at all times, being rudely spoken to and physically abused” (91). The nurses also document all behavior that they don’t approve of, telling the patient’s next of kin whenever they visit. This is reminiscent of a child’s parent being told at the end of the day that they were misbehaving during class. Instead of treating the elderly with the care and respect that they deserve, colonization has brought with it an abusive prison of a daycare for senior citizens to slowly rot away inside.

https://cameridan-hero.deviantart.com/art/Roof-Walker-357205769

The overreliance of medication is also reflected in the story. “I glanced up to look at myself in the mirror, but my face was nothing, just shelves of medicine bottles and aspirin. I had forgotten the mirror was broken” (281). Because of the broken mirror, the narrator is able to glance past her reflection and at what keeps people ticking: chalky medicine bottles and daily pain medication. The medicine used by mainstream culture acts as a band aid and little else. It disguises symptoms and makes them manageable, rather than curing them.

Native American Medicine Wheel

"Dancer" Continued

“Roofwalker” explores how perceptions of stories have changed over time because of colonization. Jessie says “When I was little I had blind faith in family legends, my grandmother’s stories...” (26). This is not merely a child’s belief in what older people tell her. It mirrors how stories were perceived before and after Europeans settled. When the world was young and Europeans had not yet invaded, Native Americans were able to follow the stories with absolute faith. However, they were treated as fairytales by the settlers after they arrived. They were tainted and degraded by people who held their own stories on a much higher pedestal. They subjugated those who had just as much of a right to live as they did and forced their culture upon another group. As a result, many stories were forgotten after colonization or viewed as lesser.

"Two Spirit Storyteller's Dance Native American Pow Wow Dance"

Native American dances have many different purposes. Some are used to guarantee a good hunt and some are expressions of prayer or celebration. Others are used for storytelling. It is immediately after viewing a dance that Clarissa changes. She suddenly becomes passionate and her nightmares disappear (252). While it could be claimed that these dances are performed for other reasons, at least some of them tell stories. “She was coming home with Spider Woman stories and trickster tales” (253). They give her strength and personality. They also imbue within her a sense of pride over who she is. “One night she speaks up at supper and says, right clear and loud, ‘I’m an Assiniboin.’ Clear as it can be, she says it again. Don’t nobody have to say nothing to something that proud said” (253). Traditional dances and the stories that they tell change Clarissa’s fate. They connect her to her people and give her not only a history, but a place to belong.

https://www.ojibwatea.com/ojibwa-essiac/the-native-american-medicine-wheel/

"Aunt Moon's Young Man" by Linda Hogan

"Sweets Are My Drug" by EzariaLee

"Claire" by Janet Campbell Hale

Men's Northern Traditional Pow Wow Regalia

https://ezarialee.deviantart.com/art/Sweets-are-my-drug-161482973

“Aunt Moon’s Young Man” examines the role medication and compares the herbal remedies of old and the newer, more regulated—and more dangerous—medicine. Though new, mainstream medication is more dangerous and features many more side effects, the herbal remedies are the ones that are usually illegal. “Bless Sis’s Aunt Moon, and bless Isaac, who got arrested for trading illegal medicine for corn, and forgive him for escaping from jail” (281). Many times, this is because the pharmaceutical companies cannot charge extravagant amounts of money for naturally occurring substances that people could potentially grow in windowsills or scavenge from the forest. So, the people in charge outlaw naturally occurring medicine, stating that the herbs have unfavorable side effects and could be potentially dangerous.

http://www.crazycrow.com/site/photo-galleries/powwow-dance-style-galleries/native-american-mens-northern-traditional/

"Dancer" by Vickie Sears

"Claire" Continued

"Keeping Pace with the Rest of the World" Continued

However, instead of retaining a deep respect for elders, colonization paved the way for prisons that senior citizens can survive in—at least for a while. “A house of detention for those who committed the crime of getting old. Loma Vista’s inmates were all on death row with no possibility of a last-minute reprieve” (95). These nursing homes are a form of hell on earth. They hold high suicide rates—as Martha shows when she dives from the rooftop. They also offer little to no privacy, shown by the doors having no locks on them.

“Claire” examines medical facilities dedicated to looking after elderly patients. The elderly have been revered in many different cultures. Indigenous peoples are renowned for having a deep, abiding respect for the older members of their communities. This can be seen in Ozzie’s initial worry for his mother and his wish for her to stay with him. It can also be found in Claire’s unquestioning conviction that she will be able to stay with Joe. She never questions whether he will welcome her or if she can live with him. Her main concern is getting to his house without being captured.

There is a clear divide between the Cherokee way of healing and the mainstream, modern version. American doctors do not draw on culture or the old ways when healing a person. It is stated that they do “not know how to heal an illness, only to cut it out” (399). Ahniwake goes on to ask “what kind of medicine would require removal of parts of the body to heal an illness?” (402). This idea is not limited to just diabetics, but also cancer patients. Modern medicine is infamous for cutting cancerous cells out of the body in the attempt to cure the illness. However, the cancer has a high probability of returning. Parts of the body have been sliced away in a futile attempt to buy time while a cure is discovered. Chemotherapy is a dangerous attempt to kill the cancerous cells off before the treatment slays the host. However, alternative medications are found in small circles—though often they are looked down upon or illegal.

"Mama and Papa" Continued

He even convinces one daughter to believe “that we couldn’t live like both whites and Indians and that white ways were best. As we watched whites move into the Choctaw Nation, we realized we should learn about them, but Beula actually wanted to be white” (13). In Beula and her future descendants, the Choctaw language and stories will be lost. This mirrors how colonization has suppressed language and storytelling—eradicating many tales and endangering others.

"Mama and Papa" by Devon A Mihesuah

"Native American Shamanism" by Myjavier007

“Dancer” looks at the effect traditional stories have upon those who have lost their culture due to colonization. In it, storytelling is used to connect people to one another and the past. Colonization has made it into a version of the red string of fate, tying people to their culture. Clarissa is a foster child in the system with no real home, nor any culture to call her own. “They said her tribe was Assinibuin, but they weren’t for certain” (251). Clarissa doesn’t speak much and is labeled as a sociopath—which seems likely since she does try to kill a cat (251). However, she swiftly changes after going to a dance.

https://myjavier007.deviantart.com/art/Native-American-Shamanism-451961344

"Keeping Pace with the Rest of the World" Continued

In “Mama and Papa,” there is a strict divide between the Choctaw and European settlers. Most “refused to speak Indian in hopes that the Indians would learn English” (7). It is also insinuated that those who do learn from the Choctaws are seen as lesser by these missionaries and by those who follow them. “Roger learned to speak Choctaw and to farm the way his wife taught him. He also stopped going to mission because he wanted to completely change his life. Papa didn’t talk to Roger much after his marriage because he was disappointed with him” (8). Because of the Americans’ refusal to speak their language, the Choctaw are forced to learn English.

"Keeping Pace with the Rest of the World" by Wilma Mankiller

Ahniwake ties treatment to culture when she questions modern doctors, stating that “[h]e did not know my clan, my family, my history. How could he possibly know how to heal me?” (402). For her, healing is not simply a pill to take or a surgery to undergo. It is a way to interact with her culture and let it heal her. Colonization has taken much of this away in favor of a cold sterility that favors cutting into a person rather than healing them.

Nvnih Waiya - Choctaw Story

Unit Three

“Keeping Pace with the Rest of the World” explores the idea that for Native Americans, medicine and medical treatments are not simply tactics for saving someone’s life, but also a way of expressing and interacting with one’s culture. When people forget about these ways of healing, they lose bits of their culture and history. “When Charlie Christie passed on, we lost many of our medicine secrets…as long as Cherokee people continue to honor our ancestors and our creator through good living and our ceremonies, the roots, herbs, and medicine songs will be available to us. When it is right, these things will be shown to our people again” (398-399).

"Native American Shamanism [2]" by Myjavier007

"Mama and Papa" Continued

However, this is more than just a refusal to learn. There is also a blatant hostility toward both Choctaw language and ways from Papa within the story. It’s stated on multiple occasions that he gets infuriated when anyone speaks another language around him. He also “got angry when Mama told hi about the old traditions, like when Choctaw women owned property and children belonged to their mama’s clans” (7). He detests hearing about their traditions and farming, as well as dancing, stating that “I don’t dance and I never will so button your lip, son” (12). He attempts to suppress the stories by being hostile and commanding others to never use this language or tell their stories.

https://myjavier007.deviantart.com/art/Native-American-Shamanism-451902884

Unit Two

"Mother's Love" Continued

Words hold power within them—the power to communicate, to destroy, to heal, and to captivate. Traditional stories pass not only moral lessons on to the next generation, but also wisdom and culture. For many Native Americans however, their stories and languages are in danger. Many languages are slowly dying off while the traditional stories are being forgotten. Unit three looks at the effects of colonization on storytelling.

The hospital also attempts to substitute people with medicine. “In some rooms the only sound is the steady electronic mechanism dispensing the drip of the IV. Sugar water, antibiotics, pain killers---the patient’s new family…There are a lot of people in here with no one” (91). Humans are social animals and need others to socialize with and love. While the sterile atmosphere may be great for preventing disease, it is not a cure for everything. Hospitals discourage visits by limiting the number of guests and visitation hours. Many also refuse overnight visitors, depending on the unit that the patient is assigned to. A person is not like a flower—they cannot be fed water and sunlight, then automatically flourish. They need many other forms of sustenance—ones that American hospitals simply do not factor into their calculations.

"Burning Book" by jKeeO

IV Drip in Darkness

"Mother's Love" Continued

https://jkeeo.deviantart.com/art/Burning-book-252567176

The hospital also threatens the mother’s bodily autonomy, stating that “…the doctor said if she doesn’t eat more she will have to put a tube in mom’s stomach. Another tube, another liquid entering my mother’s body…” (91). Though the mother would never consent, the hospital wishes to force synthetic food down her throat in an attempt to keep her alive. Their desire does not account for the quality of living, nor her wish. Instead, they simply ask the narrator, as if the mother cannot be trusted with her own well-being.

https://health.clevelandclinic.org/living-on-liquids-iv-only-diet-safeguards-patient-health/

Works Cited

"Mother's Love"

by Debra Haaland

As well as religion, colonization has also changed the medical practices of many Native Americans. This unit makes clear that not only are medical practices used to look after people, but they also pass culture and knowledge from one generation to the next. Mainstream American culture has greatly impacted this, deteriorating and sometimes completely destroying medicinal traditions. The short stories I will be looking at not only examine hospitals, but the medications themselves, hospice care, and the cultural differences between traditional and modern treatments.

"The Resurrection of John Stink" Continued

One of the old stories he attempts to tell is about death. “There is no death, only a change of worlds…Did I ever tell you about the change of worlds? The story…” (57). Effie interrupts John by asking if he is composing the story as he goes, and it is never told. After his first death, Effie says “Old man, you never did tell me about the change of the worlds” (59). Though John Stink does get resurrected, there is no indication within the story that he ever tells Effie about the change of the worlds.

"The Resurrection of John Stink" by Anna Lee Walters

"Mother's Love" Continued

“Mother’s Love” examines how mainstream American hospitals create illness within their patients by separating them from their cultural ties. Within this story, culture and familial ties are symbolized by food. The cooking recipes—as well as everything about the Laguna domestic life—are passed through female blood lines (85). However, this is not the simple mac ‘n cheese that people can throw into a microwave an hope that it turns out decent. The dishes are a way to connect not only to the immediate family, but also the spirits, visitors, and all the effort that went into providing the meal. It is a form of solidified love wrapped in piki bread. “My mother never just cooked. The food I ate while growing up was nourishing for my body and my spirit. When we all sat down for a meal, my dad would pray in Lagune and invite the spirits inside to eat with us…” (86). Food is central to this family. It connects them to one another and to everything around them.

Though her illness is never described, it is stated that the mother “had always had such a good appetite, although she would never eat anyone else’s food but her own” (89). The narrator also says that “just months ago she was eating fresh roasted corn and beef tamales with red chile that she had made” (91) and that “until two weeks ago, I was optimistic, then she began to reject food” (91). Though this could be a symptom of a swiftly progressing illness, the rejection of the hospital food seems to be because she did not prepare it herself. Because hospitals try to regulate the food that their patients ingest, they often do not allow outside meals, nor will they allow patients to cook for themselves. The cold sterility of the hospital has taken away the cultural link that the mother feels to food.

“The Resurrection of John Stink” examines stories that have been lost due to colonization, time, and circumstance. John Stink is different than his kinsman. They have transformed in “virtually every aspect of their lives, from the intangible spiritual side to their mirroring the appearance of their white neighbors as best they could” (49). However, John Stink keeps his long, braided hair, beaded moccasins, and vest. He does not blend in and instead follows his own path. A large part of this pathway is paved with stories. “John Stink sang an amusing old song that Effie was surprised he knew. He often surprised her by telling old stories and singing old songs” (54). He keeps the old ways alive inside of him and shares his culture when he can.

"Piki Bread.mov"

"Deer Woman" Continued

Allen, Paula Gunn. “Deer Woman.” Reckonings: Contemporary Short Fiction by Native American Women, edited by Hertha D. Sweet Wong and

Lauren Stuart Muller, Oxford University Press, 2008, pp. 17-24.

Billie Black. Fandom: Powered by Wikia, http://twilightsaga.wikia.com/wiki/Gallery:Breaking_Dawn_-_Part_1_movie_screenshots.

Binner-Chi. “PABST Milwaukee Beer.” 1897. Blogspot, edited by Gerry Biron, 2015, http://iroquoisbeadwork.blogspot.com/2015/.

Blaeser, Kimberly M. “Brewing Trouble.” Stories for a Winter’s Night: Short Fiction by Native American Writers, edited by Maurice Kenny, White

Pine Press, 2000, pp. 79-83.

Brant, Beth E. “Turtle Gal.” Reckonings: Contemporary Short Fiction by Native American Women, edited by Hertha D. Sweet Wong and Lauren

Stuart Muller, Oxford University Press, 2008, pp. 27-37.

Cameridan-Hero. “Roof Walker.” Deviant Art, 2013, https://cameridan-hero.deviantart.com/art/Roof-Walker-357205769.

Chief Pontiac. Word Press, edited by Chiniquy, 2016, https://chiniquy.wordpress.com/2016/01/11/native-americans-and-christianity/.

Father Washington, Father Jefferson, and Father Franklin. Game Church, edited by Britton Peele, 2013,

http://gamechurch.com/et-tu-levine-bioshock-infinites-tortured-relationship-with-religion/.

Glancy, Diane. “Minimal Indian.” Reckonings: Contemporary Short Fiction by Native American Women, edited by Hertha D. Sweet Wong and

Lauren Stuart Muller, Oxford University Press, 2008, pp. 47-53.

Haaland, Debra. “Mother’s Love.” Sister Nations: Native American Women Writers on Community, edited by Heid E. Erdrich and Laura Tohe,

Minnesota Historical Society Press, 2002, pp. 84-95.

Hale, Janet Campbell. “Claire.” Reckonings: Contemporary Short Fiction by Native American Women, edited by Hertha D. Sweet Wong and Lauren

Stuart Muller, Oxford University Press, 2008, pp. 87-110.

Hogan, Linda. “Aunt Moon’s Young Man.” Talking Leaves: Contemporary Native American Short Stories, edited by Craid Lesley, Demco Media, 1991,

pp. 266-281.

IV Drip in Darkness. Cleveland Clinic, 2014, https://health.clevelandclinic.org/living-on-liquids-iv-only-diet-safeguards-patient-health/.

jKeeO. “Burning Book.” Deviant Art, 2011, https://jkeeo.deviantart.com/art/Burning-book-252567176.

Killahchinchilla. “Deer Girl.” Deviant Art, 2014, https://killahchinchilla.deviantart.com/art/deer-girl-485623016.

Mankiller, Wilma. “Keeping Pace With the Rest of the World.” Reinventing the Enemy’s Language: Contemporary Native Women’s Writing of

North America, edited by Joy Harjo and Gloria Bird, W.W. Norton, 1997, pp. 398-406.

Men’s Northern Traditional Pow Wow Regalia. Crazy Crow Trading Post, 2018,

http://www.crazycrow.com/site/photo-galleries/powwow-dance-style-galleries/native-american-mens-northern-traditional/.

Mihesuah, Devon A. “Mama and Papa.” The Roads of My Relations, The University of Arizona Press, 2000, pp. 7-15.

Myjavier007. “Native American Shamanism.” Deviant Art, 2014, https://myjavier007.deviantart.com/art/Native-American-Shamanism-451961344.

Myjavier007. “Native American Shamanism [2].” Deviant Art, 2014,

https://myjavier007.deviantart.com/art/Native-American-Shamanism-451902884.

Native American Medicine Wheel. Ojibwa Tea of Life, 2018, https://www.ojibwatea.com/ojibwa-essiac/the-native-american-medicine-wheel/.

"Nvnih Waiya- Choctaw Story." YouTube, uploaded by ChoctawFlute, 2 Feb., 2012, www.youtube.com/watch?v=uL-fIJKOmhk.

“Piki Bread.mov.” Youtube, uploaded by Arizona Highways TV, 12 April, 2012, www.youtube.com/watch?v=J1FwRq6bnQE.

PinkMandarin. “Deer Woman.” Deviant Art, 2013, https://pinkmandarin.deviantart.com/art/Deer-Woman-354487904.

Power, Susan. “Roofwalker.” Roofwalker, Mildweed Editions, 2002, pp. 5-27.

Sears, Vickie. “Dancer.” Simple Songs, Firebrand Books, 1990, pp. 250-254.

“Star Wars VI- Return of the Jedi- Final End.” YouTube, uploaded by James00bond00, 25 Feb., 2012, www.youtube.com/watch?

v=YDqgJye7hyc.

“Supernatural—Bobby Escape’s Heaven Scene 2015.” YouTube, uploaded by SunShine, 21 April, 2015, www.youtube.com/watch?v=yueeMrXi4zg.

“Two Spirit Storyteller’s Dance Native American Pow Wow Dance.” YouTube, uploaded by Aiden Crawford ShortCloud, 22 Feb., 2016,

www.youtube.com/watch?v=4qCPYR6k4tQ.

Walters, Anna Lee. “The Resurrection of John Stink.” The Sun Is Not Merciful, Firebrand Books, 1985, pp. 49-62.

Of course, it could simply be an effect of the siren song that the deer women seem to employ rather than ignorance of old religions. Ray does state that he is acting with “untypical pliability” (19). When he tries to recall the women’s hooves, Ray also states that “the thought faded as quickly as it had come, leaving him with a slightly dazed feeling and tingling that climbed rapidly up his spine” (19). In some versions of the deer woman legend however, gazing at the hooves of a deer woman will break the spell that the man is under. So, his daze may be magical or something else—perhaps a state of shock or exhaustion. However, throughout the story, he seems capable of making his own decisions even if he is influenced by others. He retains his own sense of self, so it cannot be a complete compulsion charm.

"The Resurrection of John Stink" Continued

"Deer Woman" Continued

Instead, Effie writes her own version of it. “Well, over twenty years ago, I buried an old bowlegged man called John Stink…” (62).This is clearly not the same tale that John knew. His version of the story has passed into a new world alongside him. However, even though it may not be the same story, it carries within it the same lesson. Death is universal. Though it may be in a different form—and hold within it different content—Effie has resurrected it. Though stories may be lost, the essential core of many may live on, giving birth to other stories and new hope.

"Deer Girl" by Killahchinchilla

Being ignorant of his own cultural history would certainly explain Ray’s behavior when he sees the women's hooves. His first instinct isn’t to connect the sight to the legends of old, but to blame it on altered eyes—the effect of a substance rather than a supernatural experience. “Man, he thought, I gotta lay off the weed. He didn’t remember he’d quit smoking it months before, and hadn’t had a beer since they’d left the tavern hours before” (18).

https://killahchinchilla.deviantart.com/art/deer-girl-485623016

Effects of Colonization in Native American Literature

"Deer Woman" by Paula Gunn Allen

"Deer Woman" by PinkMandarin

"Deer Woman" Continued

Lastly, the Little People themselves have been influenced by mainstream culture. The first game everyone plays is baseball—the stereotypical “American” sport. Though Thunder states that the other games ore “not what you’re used to, I imagine, but you’ll do all right” (22), this is the first and only game that is described to readers. It is a symbol that mainstream culture has not only influenced how people perceive religion, but also the religions themselves.

https://pinkmandarin.deviantart.com/art/Deer-Woman-354487904

In “Deer Woman,” there is a clear division between the old religions and the new ones. Some legends—like that of the Little People—are clearly not well-known anymore, evidenced by the fact that the narrator hears the story from one of their grandmother’s brothers rather than anyone closer to them, such as a parent or sibling. Even after being told the legend, the narrator has no real belief in it. “He used to tell stories about strange things happening around the countryside here. I never paid much attention. You know how it is. I just thought he was putting me on, or maybe he was pining away for the old days” (24). The older generations used to believe in these beings and perhaps still do. However, the younger generations see these stories as a joke. They do not believe them and are sometimes not exposed to the old ways.

Conclusion

When someone mentions colonization, chances are high that corporeal ailments come to mind. Rampant poverty, unemployment, and alcoholism are but a few side effects that Native Americans have had to endure in their quest to regain their nations’ lands and sovereignty. However, it is not only their tangible world that is at risk. There is an eternal war waging—one to keep culture and traditions alive. Colonization has changed integral parts of many Native American cultures, including religion, medical practices, and storytelling.

"Brewing Trouble" Continued

“What does the murder of a religious hero have to do with beer...It has to do with TV and movies and the NFL and…” (81). Religious heroes—as well as religious artifacts, stereotypes, and history—have been used throughout history to endorse products, be mascots for teams, and serve as comedic relief in films, as if Native Americans are there for entertainment. The use of Luke Skywalker in the story serves to finally do the same thing to mainstream culture. This is an iconic character—one that for many people is more important or likeable than some far-away religious figure. Skywalker also serves to bring the main agenda within the trilogy to mind—rebellion. Star Wars is at heart a story about a small group of rebel fighters striving to gain their freedom from the oppressive regime of a dark empire.

"PABST Milwaukee Beer"

Unit One

http://iroquoisbeadwork.blogspot.com/2015/

"Brewing Trouble" Continued

Skywalker also brings to mind the idea of The Force. It is also a type of religion that—as time progresses within the series—is lost and thought of as myth. It is a type of energy field that is created by all living things. When a person dies, their spirit goes back to The Force. This is reminiscent of many different pagan religions—as well as the idea of the Great Spirit and Hinduism.

"Brewing Trouble" by Kimberly Blaeser

These are but a few of the areas that colonization has affected. Though they may be incorporeal, they are integral parts of each nation’s history, culture, and being. Much has been lost. However, many Native American stories have one thing in common: hope. As long as they follow the ways, the past will repeat itself. That which is lost will eventually be returned to the people—whether it be in religious revelation, medical breakthrough, or a wondrous narrative.

“Brewing Trouble” looks at the appropriation of religious figures for mainstream culture’s use and the rebellion against it. In this instance, Crazy Horse has inappropriately been used to sell beer. The descriptions on the bottle are used to describe a place to someone who has never been there rather than to a person native to the region. It is meant for outsiders, not for those that that actually live there or who once followed Crazy Horse. It is instead used to invoke a sense of pride in people who have nothing to be proud of—as many consumer products in mainstream culture do.

"Star Wars VI"

Colonization and mainstream culture have changed the religious beliefs of many Native Americans. Children were forced into boarding schools and adults often had to declare themselves Christian in order to own land. The message was clear: assimilate or annihilate. As a result, not only were there high numbers of conversions and integrating new ideas into an already existing religion, but also a loss off some ideas. Mainstream American culture also appropriates many religious and political figures for their own purposes.

Recommended Time:

2:35-2:59

Father Washington, Father Jefferson, and Father Franklin

"Brewing Trouble" Continued

http://gamechurch.com/et-tu-levine-bioshock-infinites-tortured-relationship-with-religion/

Another form of rebellion is when Craig comes up with the idea of appropriating mainstream culture’s religious and political heroes to their own advantage. In America, political leaders are often much more looked-to than religious figures. In fact, in Bioshock Infinite, there is an entire city that reveres and worships presidents of the past. By using them—as well as renowned literature and religion—he is able to reverse the roles. He states that “We’ll call our first wine ‘Washington’s Cherry Blush’ and we’ll work our way along until we get to the top of the line the two-hundred-dollar-a-bottle stuff and we’ll call that ‘Grapes of Wrath’ or ‘Last Supper Wine’” (81). By stating this, Craig has created a way of fighting back without the risk of breaking the law. He uses mainstream culture to oppose the effects of colonialism.

Billie Black

"Minimal Indian" by Diane Glancy

http://twilightsaga.wikia.com/wiki/Gallery:Breaking_Dawn_-_Part_1_movie_screenshots.

Chief Pontiac

American Indian Literature ENG 5463

https://chiniquy.wordpress.com/2016/01/11/native-americans-and-christianity

"Turtle Gal" by Beth E. Brant

“Minimal Indian” explores the mixing of religions as a result of colonialism. Many times when exposed to something new, people will integrate the idea of it into their already existing world beliefs. This is what happened with many Native American religions. Though people converted to Christianity, they still held aspects of their other beliefs and combined the two into a new type of religion.

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“Turtle Gal” illustrates the fact that colonization has negatively impacted Native American religions by spreading European Christianity and sourcing it as the “only true” religion. Many people convert to Christianity and other mainstream religions because of the threat of punishment and hell. Sue Linn expresses concerns about her mother’s being after death, saying “But Sweet William, I hear people talk about heaven. My mom didn’t believe in it, but where will she go now? I don’t know where she is” (32). After settling North America, Europeans almost immediately started imposing their religions on Native Americans. They built boarding schools and sent their priests to different villages, aiming to convert everyone. Sue Linn—young as she is—already fears for her mother, not knowing where she ended up. She symbolizes the religions that have been influenced by colonization.

The logical assumption would be that Sweet William would be the opposite and symbolize whole religions—ones that have not been negatively impacted by mainstream culture. However, his views are not definite. He reserves a type of neutrality typical of people who have encountered various different types of religions and admits that one may be true even if they don’t believe in it. However, he continues to believe in his own path and theories. “Baby, I don’t know ‘bout no heaven. My mama truly believed in it. But I thinks this here story ‘bout pearly gates and all is just a trick. Seem like they ain’t nothin’ wrong with this here earth… I do believe Dolores more at rest in the brown dirt” (32). Though he is open to the possibility of heaven—or at least respects that other people believe in it—he does follow his own beliefs, reflecting the Native Americans who follow their own religions but that will always be influenced in some way by mainstream culture.

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Her idea of God has also been combined with images of people she knows. God is described as wearing “hip boots and fishing gear” (52) with an “old truck parked behind his throne” (51). After dying, she sees two different versions of God. In one version, “HE looked a little like Floyd Buber, her father’s old friend” (52). In the other version however, he is described as having the face of a computer chip (53). This is used to symbolize that he could look like anyone or anything—a projection of someone’s own memory onto his face. Yet the form that Renah walks away with “was in his old jeans” (53) and looks like Floyd Buber. This combination of religious images and worldly ones is an effect that colonialism has had upon many, creating new belief systems within each group converted.

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The Cherokee are described as “[f]ull of superstitions and little-people tales, unless they’d been converted to Christianity. Even at that, they were still full of both worlds. Sometimes conjuring. Sometimes singing hymns” (50). This is reflected in Renah’s actions and beliefs within the story. During prayer, “she skittered across the floor in a holyghost dance” (47). She blends the idea of the Ghost Dance with that of prayer—which theoretically should nullify them both. Yet for Renah, it creates an entirely new belief system.

"Supernatural--Bobby Escapes Heaven"

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The idea of heaven is also painted as sterile within this story. “Seem like, if we be perfect, we be like them white peoples up there in that heaven they thinks so special. Yes, yes, we be in that white heaven, with the white pearly gates and the white robes and the white slippers. Child! You ever think ‘bout heaven always bein’ so white?” (33). This passage not only looks at race associated with heaven, but also the cold, disheartening, and sterile atmosphere of it—as if it’s a hospital rather than a joyous place. Where as the idea of being one with the earth usually conjures up images of green vegetation, brown soil, and colorful flowers that a person’s decomposing body nourishes and becomes part of. This very clinical look at the afterlife is a very European concept. Colonization has changed the idea of the afterlife into a frigid waiting room, rather than a joyous rebirth for many indigenous peoples.

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