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The end of the novel mirrors the moment of European settlement. “I waited for Dad to catch me, for the roofwalker to throw back his head and open his mouth, letting my dream float up from his throat into the breeze while rolling away from Lake Michigan” (27). While the ending is unclear, the tone from the previous passage mentioned makes it highly likely that her father does not come to catch her. She makes it clear that she only had faith as a small child, not any other part of her life. For Jessie, the fall is the moment where she finally gives in and stops believing—regarding the tales as little more than the Easter bunny or Santa. But this one moment of being suspended in the air—where anything is possible, good or bad—is the moment where the Europeans could have been decent human beings. It is that moment where they could have chosen to respect another peoples’ beliefs. However, they did not. Thus the fall happens and takes with it all hope.
This loss of self and of stories is also addressed in the story. “It used to be that your people knew who they were and what was expected of them. From the time they were born, each day was a lesson… But we have gone through many things and now it’s difficult to find the right road” (10). When traditional stories were common place, they would teach people how to be the best possible versions of themselves. They knew who they were and where they came from. However, after colonization, those stories were viewed by mainstream society as lesser and after integration, many were lost. With these stories vanished parts of history and thus part of the indigenous peoples themselves.
"Roof Walker" by Cameridan-Hero
https://cameridan-hero.deviantart.com/art/Roof-Walker-357205769
Native American Medicine Wheel
“Roofwalker” explores how perceptions of stories have changed over time because of colonization. Jessie says “When I was little I had blind faith in family legends, my grandmother’s stories...” (26). This is not merely a child’s belief in what older people tell her. It mirrors how stories were perceived before and after Europeans settled. When the world was young and Europeans had not yet invaded, Native Americans were able to follow the stories with absolute faith. However, they were treated as fairytales by the settlers after they arrived. They were tainted and degraded by people who held their own stories on a much higher pedestal. They subjugated those who had just as much of a right to live as they did and forced their culture upon another group. As a result, many stories were forgotten after colonization or viewed as lesser.
"Two Spirit Storyteller's Dance Native American Pow Wow Dance"
Native American dances have many different purposes. Some are used to guarantee a good hunt and some are expressions of prayer or celebration. Others are used for storytelling. It is immediately after viewing a dance that Clarissa changes. She suddenly becomes passionate and her nightmares disappear (252). While it could be claimed that these dances are performed for other reasons, at least some of them tell stories. “She was coming home with Spider Woman stories and trickster tales” (253). They give her strength and personality. They also imbue within her a sense of pride over who she is. “One night she speaks up at supper and says, right clear and loud, ‘I’m an Assiniboin.’ Clear as it can be, she says it again. Don’t nobody have to say nothing to something that proud said” (253). Traditional dances and the stories that they tell change Clarissa’s fate. They connect her to her people and give her not only a history, but a place to belong.
https://www.ojibwatea.com/ojibwa-essiac/the-native-american-medicine-wheel/
"Sweets Are My Drug" by EzariaLee
Men's Northern Traditional Pow Wow Regalia
https://ezarialee.deviantart.com/art/Sweets-are-my-drug-161482973
http://www.crazycrow.com/site/photo-galleries/powwow-dance-style-galleries/native-american-mens-northern-traditional/
He even convinces one daughter to believe “that we couldn’t live like both whites and Indians and that white ways were best. As we watched whites move into the Choctaw Nation, we realized we should learn about them, but Beula actually wanted to be white” (13). In Beula and her future descendants, the Choctaw language and stories will be lost. This mirrors how colonization has suppressed language and storytelling—eradicating many tales and endangering others.
"Native American Shamanism" by Myjavier007
“Dancer” looks at the effect traditional stories have upon those who have lost their culture due to colonization. In it, storytelling is used to connect people to one another and the past. Colonization has made it into a version of the red string of fate, tying people to their culture. Clarissa is a foster child in the system with no real home, nor any culture to call her own. “They said her tribe was Assinibuin, but they weren’t for certain” (251). Clarissa doesn’t speak much and is labeled as a sociopath—which seems likely since she does try to kill a cat (251). However, she swiftly changes after going to a dance.
https://myjavier007.deviantart.com/art/Native-American-Shamanism-451961344
Nvnih Waiya - Choctaw Story
"Native American Shamanism [2]" by Myjavier007
https://myjavier007.deviantart.com/art/Native-American-Shamanism-451902884
Words hold power within them—the power to communicate, to destroy, to heal, and to captivate. Traditional stories pass not only moral lessons on to the next generation, but also wisdom and culture. For many Native Americans however, their stories and languages are in danger. Many languages are slowly dying off while the traditional stories are being forgotten. Unit three looks at the effects of colonization on storytelling.
"Burning Book" by jKeeO
IV Drip in Darkness
https://jkeeo.deviantart.com/art/Burning-book-252567176
The hospital also threatens the mother’s bodily autonomy, stating that “…the doctor said if she doesn’t eat more she will have to put a tube in mom’s stomach. Another tube, another liquid entering my mother’s body…” (91). Though the mother would never consent, the hospital wishes to force synthetic food down her throat in an attempt to keep her alive. Their desire does not account for the quality of living, nor her wish. Instead, they simply ask the narrator, as if the mother cannot be trusted with her own well-being.
https://health.clevelandclinic.org/living-on-liquids-iv-only-diet-safeguards-patient-health/
"Mother's Love"
by Debra Haaland
As well as religion, colonization has also changed the medical practices of many Native Americans. This unit makes clear that not only are medical practices used to look after people, but they also pass culture and knowledge from one generation to the next. Mainstream American culture has greatly impacted this, deteriorating and sometimes completely destroying medicinal traditions. The short stories I will be looking at not only examine hospitals, but the medications themselves, hospice care, and the cultural differences between traditional and modern treatments.
One of the old stories he attempts to tell is about death. “There is no death, only a change of worlds…Did I ever tell you about the change of worlds? The story…” (57). Effie interrupts John by asking if he is composing the story as he goes, and it is never told. After his first death, Effie says “Old man, you never did tell me about the change of the worlds” (59). Though John Stink does get resurrected, there is no indication within the story that he ever tells Effie about the change of the worlds.
"Mother's Love" Continued
“Mother’s Love” examines how mainstream American hospitals create illness within their patients by separating them from their cultural ties. Within this story, culture and familial ties are symbolized by food. The cooking recipes—as well as everything about the Laguna domestic life—are passed through female blood lines (85). However, this is not the simple mac ‘n cheese that people can throw into a microwave an hope that it turns out decent. The dishes are a way to connect not only to the immediate family, but also the spirits, visitors, and all the effort that went into providing the meal. It is a form of solidified love wrapped in piki bread. “My mother never just cooked. The food I ate while growing up was nourishing for my body and my spirit. When we all sat down for a meal, my dad would pray in Lagune and invite the spirits inside to eat with us…” (86). Food is central to this family. It connects them to one another and to everything around them.
Though her illness is never described, it is stated that the mother “had always had such a good appetite, although she would never eat anyone else’s food but her own” (89). The narrator also says that “just months ago she was eating fresh roasted corn and beef tamales with red chile that she had made” (91) and that “until two weeks ago, I was optimistic, then she began to reject food” (91). Though this could be a symptom of a swiftly progressing illness, the rejection of the hospital food seems to be because she did not prepare it herself. Because hospitals try to regulate the food that their patients ingest, they often do not allow outside meals, nor will they allow patients to cook for themselves. The cold sterility of the hospital has taken away the cultural link that the mother feels to food.
“The Resurrection of John Stink” examines stories that have been lost due to colonization, time, and circumstance. John Stink is different than his kinsman. They have transformed in “virtually every aspect of their lives, from the intangible spiritual side to their mirroring the appearance of their white neighbors as best they could” (49). However, John Stink keeps his long, braided hair, beaded moccasins, and vest. He does not blend in and instead follows his own path. A large part of this pathway is paved with stories. “John Stink sang an amusing old song that Effie was surprised he knew. He often surprised her by telling old stories and singing old songs” (54). He keeps the old ways alive inside of him and shares his culture when he can.
"Piki Bread.mov"
Allen, Paula Gunn. “Deer Woman.” Reckonings: Contemporary Short Fiction by Native American Women, edited by Hertha D. Sweet Wong and
Lauren Stuart Muller, Oxford University Press, 2008, pp. 17-24.
Billie Black. Fandom: Powered by Wikia, http://twilightsaga.wikia.com/wiki/Gallery:Breaking_Dawn_-_Part_1_movie_screenshots.
Binner-Chi. “PABST Milwaukee Beer.” 1897. Blogspot, edited by Gerry Biron, 2015, http://iroquoisbeadwork.blogspot.com/2015/.
Blaeser, Kimberly M. “Brewing Trouble.” Stories for a Winter’s Night: Short Fiction by Native American Writers, edited by Maurice Kenny, White
Pine Press, 2000, pp. 79-83.
Brant, Beth E. “Turtle Gal.” Reckonings: Contemporary Short Fiction by Native American Women, edited by Hertha D. Sweet Wong and Lauren
Stuart Muller, Oxford University Press, 2008, pp. 27-37.
Cameridan-Hero. “Roof Walker.” Deviant Art, 2013, https://cameridan-hero.deviantart.com/art/Roof-Walker-357205769.
Chief Pontiac. Word Press, edited by Chiniquy, 2016, https://chiniquy.wordpress.com/2016/01/11/native-americans-and-christianity/.
Father Washington, Father Jefferson, and Father Franklin. Game Church, edited by Britton Peele, 2013,
http://gamechurch.com/et-tu-levine-bioshock-infinites-tortured-relationship-with-religion/.
Glancy, Diane. “Minimal Indian.” Reckonings: Contemporary Short Fiction by Native American Women, edited by Hertha D. Sweet Wong and
Lauren Stuart Muller, Oxford University Press, 2008, pp. 47-53.
Haaland, Debra. “Mother’s Love.” Sister Nations: Native American Women Writers on Community, edited by Heid E. Erdrich and Laura Tohe,
Minnesota Historical Society Press, 2002, pp. 84-95.
Hale, Janet Campbell. “Claire.” Reckonings: Contemporary Short Fiction by Native American Women, edited by Hertha D. Sweet Wong and Lauren
Stuart Muller, Oxford University Press, 2008, pp. 87-110.
Hogan, Linda. “Aunt Moon’s Young Man.” Talking Leaves: Contemporary Native American Short Stories, edited by Craid Lesley, Demco Media, 1991,
pp. 266-281.
IV Drip in Darkness. Cleveland Clinic, 2014, https://health.clevelandclinic.org/living-on-liquids-iv-only-diet-safeguards-patient-health/.
jKeeO. “Burning Book.” Deviant Art, 2011, https://jkeeo.deviantart.com/art/Burning-book-252567176.
Killahchinchilla. “Deer Girl.” Deviant Art, 2014, https://killahchinchilla.deviantart.com/art/deer-girl-485623016.
Mankiller, Wilma. “Keeping Pace With the Rest of the World.” Reinventing the Enemy’s Language: Contemporary Native Women’s Writing of
North America, edited by Joy Harjo and Gloria Bird, W.W. Norton, 1997, pp. 398-406.
Men’s Northern Traditional Pow Wow Regalia. Crazy Crow Trading Post, 2018,
http://www.crazycrow.com/site/photo-galleries/powwow-dance-style-galleries/native-american-mens-northern-traditional/.
Mihesuah, Devon A. “Mama and Papa.” The Roads of My Relations, The University of Arizona Press, 2000, pp. 7-15.
Myjavier007. “Native American Shamanism.” Deviant Art, 2014, https://myjavier007.deviantart.com/art/Native-American-Shamanism-451961344.
Myjavier007. “Native American Shamanism [2].” Deviant Art, 2014,
https://myjavier007.deviantart.com/art/Native-American-Shamanism-451902884.
Native American Medicine Wheel. Ojibwa Tea of Life, 2018, https://www.ojibwatea.com/ojibwa-essiac/the-native-american-medicine-wheel/.
"Nvnih Waiya- Choctaw Story." YouTube, uploaded by ChoctawFlute, 2 Feb., 2012, www.youtube.com/watch?v=uL-fIJKOmhk.
“Piki Bread.mov.” Youtube, uploaded by Arizona Highways TV, 12 April, 2012, www.youtube.com/watch?v=J1FwRq6bnQE.
PinkMandarin. “Deer Woman.” Deviant Art, 2013, https://pinkmandarin.deviantart.com/art/Deer-Woman-354487904.
Power, Susan. “Roofwalker.” Roofwalker, Mildweed Editions, 2002, pp. 5-27.
Sears, Vickie. “Dancer.” Simple Songs, Firebrand Books, 1990, pp. 250-254.
“Star Wars VI- Return of the Jedi- Final End.” YouTube, uploaded by James00bond00, 25 Feb., 2012, www.youtube.com/watch?
v=YDqgJye7hyc.
“Supernatural—Bobby Escape’s Heaven Scene 2015.” YouTube, uploaded by SunShine, 21 April, 2015, www.youtube.com/watch?v=yueeMrXi4zg.
“Two Spirit Storyteller’s Dance Native American Pow Wow Dance.” YouTube, uploaded by Aiden Crawford ShortCloud, 22 Feb., 2016,
www.youtube.com/watch?v=4qCPYR6k4tQ.
Walters, Anna Lee. “The Resurrection of John Stink.” The Sun Is Not Merciful, Firebrand Books, 1985, pp. 49-62.
Instead, Effie writes her own version of it. “Well, over twenty years ago, I buried an old bowlegged man called John Stink…” (62).This is clearly not the same tale that John knew. His version of the story has passed into a new world alongside him. However, even though it may not be the same story, it carries within it the same lesson. Death is universal. Though it may be in a different form—and hold within it different content—Effie has resurrected it. Though stories may be lost, the essential core of many may live on, giving birth to other stories and new hope.
"Deer Girl" by Killahchinchilla
https://killahchinchilla.deviantart.com/art/deer-girl-485623016
"Deer Woman" by Paula Gunn Allen
"Deer Woman" by PinkMandarin
https://pinkmandarin.deviantart.com/art/Deer-Woman-354487904
When someone mentions colonization, chances are high that corporeal ailments come to mind. Rampant poverty, unemployment, and alcoholism are but a few side effects that Native Americans have had to endure in their quest to regain their nations’ lands and sovereignty. However, it is not only their tangible world that is at risk. There is an eternal war waging—one to keep culture and traditions alive. Colonization has changed integral parts of many Native American cultures, including religion, medical practices, and storytelling.
“What does the murder of a religious hero have to do with beer...It has to do with TV and movies and the NFL and…” (81). Religious heroes—as well as religious artifacts, stereotypes, and history—have been used throughout history to endorse products, be mascots for teams, and serve as comedic relief in films, as if Native Americans are there for entertainment. The use of Luke Skywalker in the story serves to finally do the same thing to mainstream culture. This is an iconic character—one that for many people is more important or likeable than some far-away religious figure. Skywalker also serves to bring the main agenda within the trilogy to mind—rebellion. Star Wars is at heart a story about a small group of rebel fighters striving to gain their freedom from the oppressive regime of a dark empire.
"PABST Milwaukee Beer"
http://iroquoisbeadwork.blogspot.com/2015/
Skywalker also brings to mind the idea of The Force. It is also a type of religion that—as time progresses within the series—is lost and thought of as myth. It is a type of energy field that is created by all living things. When a person dies, their spirit goes back to The Force. This is reminiscent of many different pagan religions—as well as the idea of the Great Spirit and Hinduism.
These are but a few of the areas that colonization has affected. Though they may be incorporeal, they are integral parts of each nation’s history, culture, and being. Much has been lost. However, many Native American stories have one thing in common: hope. As long as they follow the ways, the past will repeat itself. That which is lost will eventually be returned to the people—whether it be in religious revelation, medical breakthrough, or a wondrous narrative.
“Brewing Trouble” looks at the appropriation of religious figures for mainstream culture’s use and the rebellion against it. In this instance, Crazy Horse has inappropriately been used to sell beer. The descriptions on the bottle are used to describe a place to someone who has never been there rather than to a person native to the region. It is meant for outsiders, not for those that that actually live there or who once followed Crazy Horse. It is instead used to invoke a sense of pride in people who have nothing to be proud of—as many consumer products in mainstream culture do.
"Star Wars VI"
Colonization and mainstream culture have changed the religious beliefs of many Native Americans. Children were forced into boarding schools and adults often had to declare themselves Christian in order to own land. The message was clear: assimilate or annihilate. As a result, not only were there high numbers of conversions and integrating new ideas into an already existing religion, but also a loss off some ideas. Mainstream American culture also appropriates many religious and political figures for their own purposes.
Recommended Time:
2:35-2:59
Father Washington, Father Jefferson, and Father Franklin
http://gamechurch.com/et-tu-levine-bioshock-infinites-tortured-relationship-with-religion/
Billie Black
"Minimal Indian" by Diane Glancy
http://twilightsaga.wikia.com/wiki/Gallery:Breaking_Dawn_-_Part_1_movie_screenshots.
Chief Pontiac
https://chiniquy.wordpress.com/2016/01/11/native-americans-and-christianity
"Turtle Gal" by Beth E. Brant
“Minimal Indian” explores the mixing of religions as a result of colonialism. Many times when exposed to something new, people will integrate the idea of it into their already existing world beliefs. This is what happened with many Native American religions. Though people converted to Christianity, they still held aspects of their other beliefs and combined the two into a new type of religion.
"Minimal Indian" Continued
Her idea of God has also been combined with images of people she knows. God is described as wearing “hip boots and fishing gear” (52) with an “old truck parked behind his throne” (51). After dying, she sees two different versions of God. In one version, “HE looked a little like Floyd Buber, her father’s old friend” (52). In the other version however, he is described as having the face of a computer chip (53). This is used to symbolize that he could look like anyone or anything—a projection of someone’s own memory onto his face. Yet the form that Renah walks away with “was in his old jeans” (53) and looks like Floyd Buber. This combination of religious images and worldly ones is an effect that colonialism has had upon many, creating new belief systems within each group converted.
The Cherokee are described as “[f]ull of superstitions and little-people tales, unless they’d been converted to Christianity. Even at that, they were still full of both worlds. Sometimes conjuring. Sometimes singing hymns” (50). This is reflected in Renah’s actions and beliefs within the story. During prayer, “she skittered across the floor in a holyghost dance” (47). She blends the idea of the Ghost Dance with that of prayer—which theoretically should nullify them both. Yet for Renah, it creates an entirely new belief system.
"Supernatural--Bobby Escapes Heaven"
Recommended Time 0:54- 2:13