Society, Culture, and Reform
1820-1860
"It's not what at you look at that matters, it's what you see"
~Henry David Thoreau
Baptists and Methodists
Religion: The Second Great Awakening
Revivalism in New York
Millennialism
Thesis Statement
- Charles G. Finey, a Presbyterian minister in upstate New York, appealed to people's emotions and their fears of damnation
- preached that people are saved through faith and hard work
- appealed to the middle class
Between 1820 and 1860 people across America reformed religion, the way of life, the arts, literature, education, institutions, women's rights, and slavery, changing the course of history and allowing America to evolve into what it has become today.
- Peter Cartwirght, a Baptist and Methodist circuit preacher, traveled around the country and attracted thousands to hear his dramatic preaching at camps and outdoor revivals
- converted people to respectable members of the community
- by the 1850s, Batists and Methodists became the largest Protestant denominations
- religious revivals took place throughout America during the early 19th century
- the revivals were a reaction against rationalism that was introduced during the Enlightenment and the American Revolution
- Calvinist teachings of original sin and predestination had been rejected by more liberal and forgiving believers, such as those of the Unitarian Church
- Calvinism began a counterattack
- Second Great Awakening began among educated people
- Reverend Timothy Dwight, President of Yale College
- his campus revivals motivated young men to become evangelical preachers
- revivals in the early 1800s were audience centered and could be understood by the uneducated
- offered the opportunity for salvation to all
- the religious enthusiasm of the time was based on the belief that the world was going to end with the second coming of Christ
- William Miller gathered thousands of followers by predicting that Christ would return on October 21, 1844
- even though there was much disappointment when Christ did not return, the Millerites continued as a new religion known as the Seventh-Day Adventists
Map of the United States in 1840. New York is located on the top, left portion of the map.
Mormons
Henry David Thoreau (1817-1862)
Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882)
Culture: Ideas, the Arts, and Literature
The Transcendentalists
Execrpt from "The American Scholar"
- in Europe during the 19th century, a romantic movement in art and literature took place
- at the same time in the United States, from 1820-1860, this romantic movement that stressed intuition and feelings was spread by the transcendentalists from New England
- the transcendentalists questioned the established churches and capitalistic habits
- they challenged the materialistic ways of the United States by stating that discovering one's inner self and looking for the essence of God in nature was more important than wealth
"Mr. President and gentlemen, this confidence in the unsearched might of man belongs, by all motives, by all prophecy, by all preparation, to the American Scholar. We have listened too long to the courtly muses of Europe. The spirit of the American freeman is already suspected to be timid, imitative, tame. Public and private avarice make the air we breathe thick and fat. The scholar is decent, indolent, complaisant. See already the tragic consequence. The mind of this country, taught to aim at low objects, eats upon itself. There is no work for any but the decorous and the complaisant. Young men of the fairest promise, who begin life upon our shores, inflated by the mountain winds, shined upon by all the stars of God, find the earth below not in unison with these, but are hindered from action by the disgust which the principles on which business is managed inspire, and turn drudges, or die of disgust, some of them suicides. What is the remedy? They did not yet see, and thousands of young men as hopeful now crowding to the barriers for the career do not yet see, that if the single man plant himself indomitably on his instincts, and there abide, the huge world will come round to him. Patience; patience; with the shades of all the good and great for company; and for solace the perspective of your own infinite life; and for work the study and the communication of principles, the making those instincts prevalent, the conversion of the world. Is it not the chief disgrace in the world, not to be a unit, not to be reckoned one character, not to yield that peculiar fruit which each man was created to bear, but to be reckoned in the gross, in the hundred, or the thousand, of the party, the section, to which we belong; and our opinion predicted geographically, as the north, or the south? Not so, brothers and friends,--please God, ours shall not be so. We will walk on our own feet; we will work with our own hands; we will speak our own minds. The study of letters shall be no longer a name for pity, for doubt, and for sensual indulgence. The dread of man and the love of man shall be a wall of defence and a wreath of joy around all. A nation of men will for the first time exist, because each believes himself inspired by the Divine Soul which also inspires all men" (Emerson, Ralph Waldo).
- known as the Church of the Latter-Day Saints or the Mormons
- Joseph Smith founded this religion in 1830
- based on a book of Scripture-the Book of Mormon
- this book connected Native Americans and the lost tribes of Israel
- Joseph Smith was murdered by a local mob in Illinois
- Mormons escaped persectution under Brigham Young by traveling to the western frontier
- established New Zion
- a religious community at the Great Salt Lake in Utah
- practiced polygamy (men can have more than one wife)
- best known transcendentalist and most popular lecturer of the 19th century
- expressed an individualistic mood
- 1837 address at Harvard College, "The American Scholar"
- stated that Americans should create their own original culture and not imitate European culture
- essays and poems focused on independent thinking and spiritual matters over material matters
- critic of slavery in the 1850s and supporter of the Union during the Civil War
- transcendentalist who was close friends with Ralph Waldo Emerson
- completed a two-year experiment
- lived by himself in the woods making observations of nature that helped him understand life and the universe
- published Walden in 1854
- book causes him to be considered a pioneer ecologist and convservationist
- essay "On Civil Disobedience" called for nonviolent protests and the disobeying of unjust laws
- he protested America's war with Mexico by refusing to pay the tax that, in his mind, was paying for the "immoral" war
- inspired nonviolent protestors such as Ghandi and Martin Luther King Jr.
Emerson, Ralph W. "The American Scholar." Harvard College. Cambridge, Massachusetts. 7 July 2014. AP Student. Web. 07 July 2014.
New Harmony
Shakers
Brook Farm
Oneida Community
Communal Experiments
- numerous experiments in the middle of the 19th century attempted to create an Utopian society
- the early Mormons and the Brook Farm experiments are examples of a secular experiment
- founded by John Humphrey Noyes 1848
- cooperative community in Oneida, New York
- highly controversal community
- dedicated to creating a perfectly equal social and economic community
- shared land and marriage partners
- critics called Oneida's planned reproduction and communal child rearing a sinful experiment
- thrived by producing and selling excellent silverware
- secular experiment in New Harmony, Indiana
- founded by Welsh industrialist and reformer Robert Owen
- hoped it would provide answers to the problems of inequity and alienation caused by the Industrial Revolution
- experiment failed due to financial problems and disagreements between people in the community
- in 1841 George Ripley, a Protestant minister, created an experiment at Brook Farm in Massachusetts
- goal: "a more natural union between intellectual and manual labor"
- drew leading intellectuals of the time to his experiment such as Emerson and Margaret Fuller
- fire and debt caused the end of the experiment in 1849
- one of the earliest communal movements
- 6,000 members in various communities by the 1840s
- Shakers held property in common
- men and women were kept separate
- marriage and sexual relations were forbidden
- died off by the mid 1900s
- Amana setttlements in Iowa founded by German Pietists also practiced this life style
- men and women were not kept seperate and marriage was allowed
- this ensured the survival of their community
Fourier Phalanxes
Literature
Architecture
Arts and Literature
Painting
Excerpt from Walden
Artwork from the 19th century
A Song from 1845:
Old Dan Tucker
- reforming impulses of the Age of Jackson showed up in paintings, architecture, and literature
These two oil paintings depict beautiful landscape in America during the 19th century.
- architects used classical Greek styles during the Jacksonian era to build up the democratic spirit of the American republic
- columns were at the enteryways to public buildings, banks, hotels, and private homes
- in the 1840s, Americans were interested in the theories of French socialist Charles Fourier
- Fourier supported communities that shared work and living arrangements
- these communities were known as Fourier Phanlanxes
- Horace Greely edited a newspaper that was interested in Fourier's theories
- movement died off quickly because of American individualistic ways
"The scenery of Walden is on a humble scale, and, though very beautiful, does not approach to grandeur, nor can it much concern one who has not long frequented it or lived by its shore; yet this pond is so remarkable for its depth and purity as to merit a particular description. It is a clear and deep green well, half a mile long and a mile and three quarters in circumference, and contains about sixty-one and a half acres; a perennial spring in the midst of pine and oak woods, without any visible inlet or outlet except by the clouds and evaporation. The surrounding hills rise abruptly from the water to the height of forty to eighty feet, though on the southeast and east they attain to about one hundred and one hundred and fifty feet respectively, within a quarter and a third of a mile. They are exclusively woodland. All our Concord waters have two colors at least; one when viewed at a distance, and another, more proper, close at hand. The first depends more on the light, and follows the sky. In clear weather, in summer, they appear blue at a little distance, especially if agitated, and at a great distance all appear alike. In stormy weather they are sometimes of a dark slate-color. The sea, however, is said to be blue one day and green another without any perceptible change in the atmosphere. I have seen our river, when, the landscape being covered with snow, both water and ice were almost as green as grass. Some consider blue "to be the color of pure water, whether liquid or solid." But, looking directly down into our waters from a boat, they are seen to be of very different colors. Walden is blue at one time and green at another, even from the same point of view" (Thoreau, Henry).
- transcendentalist authors (Emerson and Thoreau)
- War of 1812 lead to high American nationalism
- people wanted to read about American themes from American writers
- Washington Irving and James Fenimore Cooper wrote fiction novels with American settings
- Cooper wrote a series of novels from 1824-1841 called the Leather Stocking Tales
- the novels glorified frontiersman
- Nathaniel Hawthorne wrote The Scarlet Letter in 1850
- questioned the intolerance and conformity in America
- Herman Melville wrote Moby Dick in 1855
- discussed theological and cultural conflicts
- Genre Painting: expressed everyday life of everyday people
- became popular in the 1830s
- George Caleb Bingham painted common people riding riverboats, voting, and completing household chores
- William S. Mount became famous for rural paintings
- Thomas Cole and Frederick Church painted beautiful American landscapes
- dramatic scenes along the Hudson River in New York and the western wilderness were painted
- Hudson River school focused on the natural world
Mount Hood
William S. Mount
oil on canvas
Ferryman Playing Cards
George Caleb Bingham
oil on canvas
1847
A View Near Tivoli (morning)
Thomas Cole
oil on canvas
1837
Old Dan Tucker. Perf. Win Stracke. Old Dan Tucker. N.p., 24 Apr. 2011. Web. 7 July 2014.
Thoreau, Henry D. "9." Walden. N.p.: n.p., 1854. N. pag. Web. 7 July 2014.
Temperance
Movement for Public Asylums
Reforming Society
Schools for Blind and Deaf Persons
Mental Hospitals
- Thomas Gallaudet created a school for the deaf
- Dr. Samuel Gridley Howe created a school for the blind
- by the 1850s, special schools were established in many states
- the antebellum era contained several stages of reform
- at first, leaders wanted to improve people's behavior through persuasion
- after that failed, reform leaders turned to political action and ideals for creating new institutions
- Humanitarian reformers of the 1820s and 1830s became concered with paupers, the emotionally disturbed, and criminals
- these people were often treated inhumanly or completed neglected
- reformers proposed to set up new institutions to cure these people's antisocial behaviors by being withdrawn from their surroundings
- Dorothea Dix, a former school teacher, was horrified that the mentally ill were locked up with criminals
- dedicated the rest of her life to improve the lives of the mentally ill
- her travels in the 1840s caused states to build mental hospitals or improve the existsing institutions
- mental paitents were now recieving professional treatment at the expense of the state
- reformers targeted alcohol as the casued of social illness
- casued temperance to become the most popular reform movement
- in 1826, Protestant minitries and others founded the American Temperance Society
- tried to persuade people to take a pledge to stop drinking
- Washingtonian Society began in 1840 by recovering alcoholics who argued that alcoholism was a disease that needed proper treatement
- millions of Americans joined the temperance societies
- water was the only drink in many middle-class households
- German and Irish immigrants opposed the temperance movement but they did not have the political power to keep the governments from siding with the reformers
- factory owners and politicians supported the reformers because temperance measures were reducing crime and poverty and increasing people's ability to work
- in 1855, Maine was the first of the thirteen states to prohibit the making and sale of alcohol
- in the 1850s, the slavery question outshinned the temperance movment
- however, in the late 1870s, the Women's Christian Temperance Union strengthened the movement which led to the passing of the 18th Ammendment
Free Common Schools
Moral Education
Higher Education
Public Education
Prisons
- middle-class reformers became concerned with the growing amount of uneducated poor
- workers' groups in cities supported free, tax-supported schools
- in the 1830s, Protestants founded small colleges mainly in the newer, western states
- Mt. Holyoke College in Massachusetts and Oberlin College in Ohio admitted women
- adult education was furthered by lecture societies that sent speakers, such as Ralph Waldo Emerson, to small towns
- Horace Mann was the Secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education and a leading advocate for public schools
- improved public schools
- compulsory attendance for all children
- longer school years
- more tecaher preparation
- the movement that Mann sparked spread to other states
- new prisions in Pennsylvania called penitentiaries were established
- placed prisoners in solitary confinement to reflect on their sins
- closed down these new prisons because of the high suicide rate
- reformers believed that structure and discipline would bring moral reform
- Aurburn system in New York
- experiment inside a prison in which harsh discipline was enforced along with moral instruction and work programs
- Mann and others wanted children to have moral education
- William Holmes McGuffery was a Pennsylvania teacher who created elementary school textbooks
- these textbooks taught students about hard work, punctuality, and sobriety
- life skills needed to succeed in an industrialized society
- Roman Catholic groups founded private schools for Catholic and foreign-born children
Cult of Domesticity
Origins of the Women's Rights Movement
Seneca Falls Convention (1848)
Antislavery Movement
The Changing American Family and Women's Rights Movement
- women, especially those involved in antislavery movements, disliked their secondary roles in the movement and prevented them from participating in policy discussions
- Sarah and Angelina Grimke were unhappy about being second to men
- Sarah wrote the Letter on the Condition of Women and the Equality of the Sexes in 1837
- Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton campaigned for women's rights
- moderates wanted gradual abolition of slavery
- radicals wanted immediate abolition of slavery and the freeing of slaves without compensating their owners
- northerners began to view slavery as a sin which led to more radical views, making it difficult to compromise
- men are responsible for economic and political affaris
- women are responsible for domestic issues and children
- the view of women as moral leaders in the home and the educator of children is labeled as the cult of domesticity
- leading feminists met at Seneca Falls, New York in 1848 for the first women's rights convention in American history
- created a document called the "Declaration of Sentiments"
- stated that all men and women are created equal
- listed laws and customs that discriminated them
- Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony led the campaign for equal voting, legal, and propert rights for women
- in the 1850s, the slavery crisis overpowered the women's rights movement
- the Industrial Revolution caused the roles of men and women in society to change
- men left home to work in offices or factories
- middle-class women stayed at home to take care of the house and children
- industrialization effected the size of families
- 7.04 family members in 1800 to 5.42 family members in 1830
- affluent women devoted their time to religious and moral organizations
- New York Female Morale Reform Society prevented young, poor women from resorting to prostitution
Black Abolitionists
Liberty Party
American Antislavery Society
American Colonization Society
Frederick Douglass
- this society consisted of escaped slaves and free blacks
- members are the most outspoken critics of slavery
- Frederick Douglass was a former slave allowing him to speak from firsthand experiences
- follower of Garrison
- in 1847 he wrote The North Star
- Harriet Tubman, David Ruggles, Sojourner Truth, and William Still help slaves escape to free territory in the North or to Canada
- the idea of transporting freed slaves to an African colony began in 1817 with the founding of the American Colonization Society
- the organization consisted of antislavery moderate reformers and politicians
- in 1822, the American Colonization Society esablished an African American settlement in Monrovia, Liberia
- colonization not a practical option because between 1820 and 1860 the slave population in America grew by 2.5 million slaves, while only about 12,000 African Americans settled in Liberia during these same decades
- consisted of northernerss who were inspired by Garrison
- founded in 1840
- James Birney runs for president in 1840 and 1844 as their candidate
- this party's one compaign pledge was to bring an end to slavery
- in 1831, William Lloyd Garrison started an abolitionist newspaper called "The Liberator"
- this began the radical abolitionist movement
- paper suggested the immediate abolition of slavery everywhere in America and that the slaves did not have to pay compensation to their owners
- in 1833, William Lloyd Garrison and others founded the American Antislavery Society
- this society attacked the Constitution as a proslavery document
- Garrison argued "no Union with slaveholders" until they freed their slaves
Frederick Douglass-From Slave to Abolitionist. Little Dread, 6 Apr. 2013. Web. 7 July 2014.
Violent Abolitionism
Historical Perspectives: Motives for Reform
Other Reforms
Southern Reaction to Reform
The Temperance Movement and Slavery in the 19th Century
- antebellum effected the West and the North but not as much in the South
- southerners were commited to tradition and did not entirely support public education and the humanitarian reforms
- viewed the social reforms as a northern conspiracy against the southern way of life
- American Peace Society: founded in 1828 to abolish war
- influenced New England reformers to oppose the Mexican War
- laws to protect seamen from being flogged
- dietary reforms to promote good digestion
- dress reform for women causing their outfits to be less traditional
- phrenology-the study of the skull's shape to determine one's character and ability
- Alice Taylor wrote Freedom's Ferment in 1944 in which reformers from this century were portrayed as idealistic humanitarians who wanted to improve society
- recently historians question whether they were motivated by humanitarian concern
- reforms such as temperance, asylums, and public education by the upper and middle class took place to control the masses
- temperance: control the poors' and immigrants' alcohol consumption
- penitemtiaries: control crime
- public education: "Americanize" the immigrant population
- schools supported by the wealthy taught the middle class things such as working hard and punctuality to help them
- poor houses: motivate the lower class to work
- most reformers were Whigs, not Jacksonian Democrats
- some believe many that reasons led to reform
- some reasons were self-serving but some reformers sincerely thought their ideas would help people
- Dorothea Dix has two reasons for her reform
- 1. save public money
- 2. it was the humane and moral thing to do
- historians point out that the successful reforms had broad support throughout society for a mix of reasons
- David Walker and Henry Highland Garnet were two African Americans who came up with the most radical solution to end slavery
- advocated for slaves to revolt against their masters
- in 1831, Nat Turner led a revolt in Virginia in which 55 white men were killed
- to retaliate, the whites killed hundred of blacks in brutal ways
- fear of more uprisings ended antislavery talk in the South
Temperance Movement. Jen L Hughes, 2013. YouTube. Temperance Movement. 24 Feb. 2013. Web. 7 July 2014.
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