The Classical Oration

If the first two premises are true, then the conclusion is logically valid. However, if either premise is false (or questionable), then the conclusion is subject to challenge.

Major premise: Celebrities are role models for young people.

Minor premise: Lindsey Lohan is a celebrity.

Conclusion: Lindsey Lohan is a role model for young people.

confirmation (confirmatio)

• major part of text
• includes development or proof
• contains the most specific and concrete detail in text
• makes strongest appeal to logos

Deduction - drawing a conclusion by starting with a general principle or universal truth (a major premise) and applying it to a specific case (a minor premise).

Often structured as a syllogism, a logical structure that uses the major premise and minor premise to reach a necessary conclusion.

refutation (refutatio)

narration (narratio)

Major premise: Exercise contributes to better health.

Minor premise: Yoga is a type of exercise.

Conclusion: Yoga contributes to better health.

• provides factual information and background material on the subject
• establishes why the problem needs addressing
• level of detail depends on audience's knowledge of subject
• classical rhetoric=narration appeals to logos
• however, writer often appeals to pathos to evoke an emotional response about the importance of issue

• addresses the counterargument
• is the "bridge" between the writer's proof and conclusion
• classical rhetoricians place this section at the end of the text to address possible objections
• however, if opposing views are well know, a writer will address them before making his/her own argument
• appeals largely to logos

The Classical Oration

Induction - Latin = inducere "to lead into"

an argument that leads from particulars to universals, using specifics cases to draw a conclusion

Four main ways writers shape/

organize arguments:

1. classical oration - a five-part structure for a speech that modern writers still use today

2. induction

3. deduction

4. Toulmin model

conclusion (peroratio)

introduction (exordium)

Regular exercise promotes weight loss.

Exercise lowers stress levels.

Exercise improves mood and outlook.

GENERALIZATION: Exercise contributes to better health

• In Latin, exordium means "beginning a web"

• introduces the reader to the subject under discussion
• can be 1+ paragraphs
• designed to hook the reader into the text
• often, this is where the writer establishes ethos

• 1+ paragraphs, depending
• brings the essay to a satisfying close
• writer appeals to pathos and reminds the reader of earlier ethos established
• does not simply restate what's already been said
• conclusion synthesizes all writers ideas together and answers the question, so what?
• last words, ideas, or advice are what the audience will remember most

Induction and Deduction

Two types of reasoning...

AND

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Shaping Argument

Devised by Greek and Roman rhetoricians two thousand years ago for presenting cases in courts or making speeches to the senate

Cicero: Considered the greatest of ancient Roman Orators