Reporting Methods

Questions: Why small % of foreign news in US media?

v) Decline in newspaper readership – due to:

• competition from other media
• less time to less time to read
• increase in non-English speaking population

• Absurdity (strange, bizarre) [Michael Jackson dangling baby in German hotel]

• Catastrophe (earthquake, crashes, flood etc) [building on fire; tsunami]

• Hope news ( also called “solution journalism”):

Citizen Journalism: online news coverage by people who do not work for commercial news organizations

• Major advocate -- Dan Gillmor, former columnist of San Jose Mercury News

• Goal -- cover news, issues and communities mainstream media don’t reach

• Audiences -- people who feel not adequately served by traditional [*legacy] media

• Practitioners -- a mixture of trained journalists and interested amateurs

• Journalist no longer have one way channel of communication: audiences now want to talk back and participate in news gathering and distribution

• Some media now solicit & receive texts, videos and photos from citizens & eyewitnesses e.g.

• Missing in Citizen Journalism & disadvantage is truthfulness, objectivity, verification, cross-references – what traditional media do

Convergence: merging of different media outlets (audio/video/print) into one online platform of information delivery

Questions in-class

Implications for roles of journalists:

Change of journalists’ roles -- now multimedia journalists &must understand:

• the basics of writing
• the basics of editing
• fundamentals of audio & video reporting and production
• fundamentals of blogging
• basics of mobile phone technology etc

What are the implications of convergence for journalism education? (discuss in class)

• Continual deadline: This is a “24-7” attitude towards reporting: when there is breaking news online stories are quickly updated

• Interactive content: Web news stories often feature discussion groups, and ask questions at the end to enable readers express their views

• Related links: Online news is accompanies by links to related information and suggests where readers can get help etc.

• Nonlinear structure: Stories are split into several parts and sidebars

• Databases: Many online publications now have sites offering databases readers can search to find answers to:

*how to lose weight

*how to be physically fit

*how to treat sports injuries

*how to improve school test scores etc.

Roles of print and broadcast journalists are also converging

• Personalized journalism: Many online sites are reaching out and asking users to contribute or post their personal stories: romance, war, obituaries, photos of lynching etc.

• Specialized beats: Almost all news sites are devoted to specialized subject areas: money, travel, health, technology etc.

Traditionally, sources of news were people at the top of society:

• Top government officials
• Top industry officials
• Celebrities

Today, sources of news have changed and include unknown members of society:

• Cab/truck drivers
• Students
• Welfare recipients
• The unemployed
• Crash victims
• Drug dealers/users/addicts etc.

• Note: the latter can be sources of most promising and interesting news stories

• Avoid: gender and issue stereotypes in choosing/assigning issues & sources: news sources should represent ethnic, religious and gender diversity

The concept, “ beat,” has changed and now includes specialized subject areas and activities:

*sports

*politics

*education

*agriculture

*science and technology

*health and medical etc.

*vacation

*economics

*finance

*religion

• A beat reporter may operate from small office at the beat equipped with a computer or laptop/power book, a fax machine, telephone, videophone etc.

• Beat reporter makes rounds with sources after which s(he) electronically files reports to newsroom

• The danger editors watch out for in press releases is *puffery i.e. exaggerated publicity

• Sometimes "embargo" is placed on press release

• request to delay use until later date indicated on press release

• Editors should generally honor the request

• From PR perspective, purpose of embargo is to obtain maximum publicity on the news release since no newspaper will carry the news before that date

They are paid in three ways:

• by contract
• by the length of stories
• some are paid "retainer fees" in addition (to retain their loyalty)

Freelance journalist may send “Query” letter to editors to find out editor’s interest to publish a story if reporter writes it

Questions:

Where do reporters get story ideas? Where and how do they find fresh angles for old stories?

Advantage?: Information is authenticity/accurate

Disadvantage: if source contains false information reporter will be multiplying falsehood

[A] Scheduled event: This type of news occurrence is anticipated:

= Football match

= PTA meeting

= Political rally/convention

= Debate

= Opening of new plant etc.

[B] Unexpected event (also called *spot news):

= Tornado

= Blizzard

= Earthquake

= Plane crash

= Fire

= Flood etc

[C] Planned news (also called *made news):

= Special interviews (e.g. human interest features)

= Personality profiles/sketches

= Background stories

= Public opinion (“vox pop”)

• Public opinion poll (voice of the people) i.e. interview e.g. on the street with general public
• Advantage: it is quick
• Disadvantage: may not be representative

*Two keys to good listening are:

a)attentiveness (for correct #s, facts, names, quotes, dates etc.)

b)selectivity (not everything one hears, sees or observes is relevant)

Two types of interviewing

[A] Formal Interview

• Interview arranged well ahead of time -- venue, date, time and sometimes, the topic or subject are all set up [image reporter sits interviewing person]

• One type of formal interview is -- "Formal Group Interview:" many reporters interview a news source at the same time e.g. press conference [image of press conference]

Disadvantage: Information obtained is not "exclusive information" -- one made available only to one reporter

To overcome -- "loiter,” hang around after press conference for opportunity to ask exclusive question for exclusive information

Advantage: Many reporters thinking up questions -- and everyone benefits from each other’s question

B) Informal Interview

When reporter suddenly meets news source at the airport, train station, tennis club house, bus station etc.

A few tips about interviews:

• tip: Most competent - &knowledgeable person should be interviewed: three categories of interviewees--

• potentates -- people who have power and authority [image]
• People – people whose experiences allow them to give direct testimonies on their experiences [image of abused woman/man]
• experts -- people who have special knowledge and experience on a subject

Questions: Who is an expert? What makes someone an expert?

• knowledge and experience
• Not necessarily academic degree or title

tip: Experts are found at the following levels of society:

• Government: federal, state and county
• Industry
• University (attractive for two reasons:
• a) they have invested years of research and knowledge on the issues
• b) they do not have interest in the outcome of the story: objectivity

tip: Do your "homework" -- Know something about the topic, interviewee & look up photos of the subject

= Home work begins at:

*the newspaper’s morgue (newspaper library or clippings)

*online databases

*talk to reporters/editors who know interviewee

*talk to families/friends of interviewees

*read magazines, n/p articles and books

*look at pictures about the subject of interview

tip: Icebreaker (“small talk”) is helpful to get interviewee & interviewer relaxed

tip: Tell them how long interview will last – and if you’ll come back

tip: Appearance and demeanor: dress in fashion similar to interviewee’s & be polite and relaxed without being too casual

tip: Write down your questions on a piece of paper – why?

• helps prepare you for the interview
• you don't forget important questions
• helps you pay attention to interviewee’s points
• saves you problem of mentally scratching your head for questions after interviewee’s last point
• sources are impressed with you

tip: Ask short, simple, straightforward questions.

tip: Let the interviewee talk longer: do not monopolize the conversation

tip: Probe for detailed answers through "follow-up" questions – how?

• By asking such one- or two-word question as: What next,? Then,? How is that,? So? Why?
• By telling the interviewee that s(he) has not answered the question
• By looking poised (to write) and keeping silent

tip: Decorum: good manners -- very important: chew gum, smoke or drink or touch objects at office or home of interviewee?

tip: Be prepared to bring the interviewee back to the subject when he or she wanders off course

tip: Avoid double barreled questions: two questions asked in one in such a way that the interviewee may agree with one part and disagree with the other e.g.:

• "Do you support that defense budget should be cut and that money spent on education?"

tip: Watch out for the "elephant-and-ant-technique" used by some interviewees to dodge or evade your question

tip: Do not conceal your identity: who you are, whom you work for and purpose of your visit

tip: Inspire confidence in your speech. Don't beat around the bush: be direct in your questions

• If a person is reluctant to talk, what should the interviewer do?

tip: Engage them in unrelated subject or a subject that they’re willing to talk about, then gradually, cautiously bring up the subject matter/question once more

• At that point if they still do not want to talk e.g., “I have not comment,” back off and quote them on that

tip: Notebooks/tape recorders: when do you bring out the notebook/recorder?

• After establishing rapport – just as interviewee begins to talk

tip: Use colored felt-tip pen to circle/mark important facts or quotes

tip: Let interviewee discuss all sides of the issue - pros and cons; and remember to get in the 5Ws and H

tip: Remain flexible. An interview is a dynamic conversation that changes in the making. Careful listening, quick responses to hints and leads dropped in the conversation can help the reporter rephrase questions to obtain deeper intelligence

tip: Start off with non-threatening questions & save tough questions toward end

tip: Role-play

ti: Use "match-maker technique": ask interviewee to suggest other sources who know the subject or have opposing view point, and how you can reach them

tip: Use “Sponsorship technique”: Get/find someone who knows and trusts you to recommend you to a source that is reluctant to talk to you. Some times the source you are recommended to may not know much about the issue but would further recommend you to another source (based on the same trust).

• A good technique to interview criminals who may not trust the reporter, wrongly believing reporter works for law enforcement agency

tip: Eye-contact and non-verbal cues such as nodding, smiling) can create a simple bond with interviewee

tip: Remember who is being interviewed – gender & culturally

tip: Use a clean-up question to sweep up the loose ends e.g.

• "Is there anything about this subject that is important?
• Is there something you want people to know or that you have not talked about?

Should I take a tape recorder for interview?

a) Sympathize/empathize with them

b) Share any common experience with them

c) Talk to someone else other than the one in greatest pain e.g. relatives, friends, neighbors

Question: What techniques would you use to ask bombshell question - tough but embarrassing question, especially at your beat?

1. Attribute the question to someone else e.g.:

• "Sir, there are people who say that you …did …! This is your opportunity to answer them."

2. Use a non-beat reporter; why?

• so that beat reporter's relationship with a regular source is not destroyed

A variation of this is to "double-team" a subject, using a "good cop-bad cop" approach

• in this approach one reporter is sympathetic to the interviewee while the other asks the bombshell

3. Ease into bombshell question gently

4. Wait until late to throw the bombshell

• After throwing the bombshell, clean up with final, easy questions before departing

[A] Open-ended question: Interviewees are asked to generate their own answers to questions

• Used by most reporters to start interviews because it allows interviewee to relax

Examples:

• What are the facts the Oklahoma investments?
• How did $4 billion disappear from the NNPC?
• Why do you think that happened?
• How was that?
• Why?

Advantages:

a) It permits in-depth responses especially through follow-up questions

b) It permits reporter learn a respondent's true feeling on an issue

c) It reveals information and facts a reporter may not have thought about

Disadvantage:

a) A reporter cannot learn a respondent's viewpoint quickly

[B] Closed-ended questions: Respondents are asked to choose from answers invariably provided by interviewer

• This type of question calls for a brief, pointed reply e.g. “yes” or “no” e.g.

Examples:

• When you catch terrorists do kill or spare them?
• Do you deny it?
• How many times has this happened?
• Did you feel happy or sad?

Advantages:

a) A reporter can quickly interviewee's view point quickly

Disadvantage:

a) Cannot express true feelings on an issue since answers are "yes" or "no"

1) On-the-record information: Information news source says: "You can quote me on that"

2) On background information: Use in direct quotation but no name e.g.:

• "We expect a quick settlement of the strike," a high-ranking Labor Department official said.

3) On deep background information: Use but not in direct quotations and no e.g.:

• A quick settlement of the strike is expected today, a high-ranking John Deer official, said

4) Off-the-record-information: Information source requests not published or if published not identified with the source

• If reporter agrees not to use it uphold the promise! WHY?

• To keep reporter’s credibility & relationship with source

• (Do not burn your bridges) (image of person crossing bridge)

• Courts have held the reporter can be sued by sources!

• Ideally, reporter should look for a source willing to go on record!!

iii) Do not allow interviewee suddenly claim something is off-the-record

v) Ask the interviewee to suggest another who may have same information i.e. match-making technique

Some media may use off-the-record information on a case-by-case basis: depending on e.g. the (past) credibility of the source, or the nature of the information

Four occasions to use off the record

1. If it is a matter of public record

2. If it is a generally known fact

. If it is available and obtainable from several sources

4. If you were a witness

Attribution - Media practice of identifying sources of information in a news report

• As a general rule, attribute opinions, comments & controversial statements because the journalistic maxim:

• "Facts are sacred but opinions are free"

• The source of information can be a person, document or publication

Verbs of attribution

Commonly used verbs of attributions are:

= said = contended

= According to = argued

= pointed out = remarked

= disclosed = noted

= added = opined

= observed = state etc.

= claimed = maintained

• Of these, said, is preferred because it is = neutral, unobtrusive, objective and has no connotation

• When “said,” “said” becomes monotonous reporter may:

• Use “According to” and continue with “said,” “said,” “said”

• ii) Use other verbs that appropriately conveys speaker’s expression e.g. stated, remarked, observed, argued etc.

General tips for attributions

1)Attribute –

• second hand information
• criticisms
• statements about controversial issues
• opinions and all quotations
• But do not attribute undisputed facts

2) Place comma after attribution introducing a one-sentence quotation

• He said, “This is good.”
• She said: “This is not just good. It is very good.”

3) Place a colon after attribution introducing two or more sentence-quotation

4) Attribute each separate statement of opinion in direct quotation

5) Attribute statements to people, documents or publications - but never to places or institutions

6) Select appropriate verb of attribution that describes source's actual expression or behavior

• The practice of checking the accuracy of quotes with interviewees

• Some reporters endorse it, others debunk the practice

3 occasions when direct quotations should be used –

a) When someone important says something important

b) When someone says something unique i.e.:

• something surprising
• something new: never heard of before
• something one does not expect the speaker to say
• something disturbing
• something striking

c)When someone says something uniquely

Quoting whole paragraphs

• When quoting two or more consecutive paragraphs, the quotation mark should be used to open the beginning of each paragraph

• The closing quotation mark should not be used until the end of the last paragraph e.g.
• “In Rivers State alone last year, more than 50,000 persons were killed in clashes between criminal gangs masquerading as cultists.
• “The various gangs that were armed and used by politicians to secure victory in the polls fought deadly supremacy battles to access further funding from their political godfathers.
• “Fortunately, most of the sophisticated guns were retrieved from the youths after the elections.”

• Quote sentences together only if they were spoken or printed one after the other.

• This is the use responses to one question to answer another question
• Someone may say something later in an interview that answers better or more fully a question posed earlier

Question: Can a writer do this? Is s(he) being fair? Is meaning being distorted?

Sentences that logically go together, that logically enhance one another and that are clearly sequential can and often should be placed together

Defamation may be spoken or written:

[A] Libel: Defamation that is written [includes]:

• newspaper reports
• caricatures
• cartoons
• effigies
• photographs
• paintings
• signboards
• motion pictures etc.

[B] Slander: Defamation that is spoken: ephemeral, transient, lasting momentarily

• sign language
• gestures etc.
• facial expressions
• mime language

• To be protected by this privilege, the story must be full, complete, accurate and fair

• However, the courts allow legislators, judges and government executives and most participants during judicial, executive or legislative proceedings “absolute privilege” to say anything when acting in their official capacities at those proceedings

1. A proof that the plaintiff consented to the publication of the story

2. A proof of that plaintiff has had previous bad reputation

3. A proof that the statute of limitation

4. A proof that the story came from a usually reliable source e.g. AP wire service

5. A showing that defendant gave the plaintiff opportunity to use his/her medium to reply (in political broadcasts: equal time)

Some criteria for awarding damages:

1. Reputation of the plaintiff

2. Nature (seriousness) of the defamation e.g. irrational name calling or insinuation of wrongdoing

3. The form and permanency of the publication- e.g. oral/printed matter

4. The degree of dissemination

5. The degree to which the defamatory matter is believed

6. The defendant's conduct in publishing a "retraction" or "corrigendum."

7. In certain cases, the good faith of the defendant in publishing the defamatory matter

• Unlike medical and legal professions newspersons-news sources conversations are not quite recognized by the common law

• But two pieces of legislation help to protect news sources’ identities:

Question: What is the difference between search warrant and subpoena?

• With a search warrant police will simply knock on the door, enter newsroom and search for reporters’ documents on their own

• But with a subpoena reporter is asked to turn over the material to authorities at a pre-determined place and time

Question: What’s the advantage of subpoena for reporters?

It gives them time to challenge in the court the subpoena order to turn over the document to the police, and with success gets the order quashed!

Note that any contempt conviction can be appealed to a higher court and the punishment can be suspended pending the outcome of the appeal

Question 4: Why does fake news seem to endure?

a) Many journalists are trying to write as many stories as possible -- stories that get traffic and social attention. The incentive is towards producing more and checking less

> b) As long as people constantly try to tune into feelings that they think they already have or want to have, reinforcing that which they have fake news may remain with us for a long time e.g.:

> Remember the story that Hillary Clinton was being fed with answers to questions prior to the debate? Many on the right wing believed it!

c) c) Not every newsroom has a policy regarding how to verify and authenticate fake news: Nearly 40% do not have such policy or guidelines for their reporters

Questions 2:

Is fake news hurting the credibility of otherwise credible news? How? Any examples?

Questions 3:

Question: In libel/slander, trad'l media are penalized. Should social media be censored for carrying fake news? If so, what type(s) of censorship or restraints?

 Questions: Right after the election, in editorials, news articles, the media started calling 'fake news' a bit of everything.

 1. Is the media industry partly to be blamed for this confusion – as people now use the term to describe a sponsored post, an ad, a rumor, any type of information they don’t like?

> Today, Trump, world leaders, journalists, politicians, students, c'man – all use the word:

>Google: 5mx. In 2018 alone, 2mx on Twitter

> Today, all sorts of things - spin, misinformation, conspiracy theories, mistakes, and reporting that people just don't like - have been rolled into it

> A global problem! Needs solutions !!

> But to say that Trump was the first politician to use the term would itself be "fake news"

> December 8, 2016, Hillary Clinton made a speech in which she mentioned "the epidemic of malicious fake news that flooded social media over the past year."

>President-elect Trump took up the phrase January 2017, a little over a week before taking office when he said, "you're fake news" to CNN reporter, Jim Acosta.

How did the term, “fake news,” evolve?

> From a small community in Macedonia, “Veles,” where as many as 140 fake news websites were pulling in huge numbers on Facebook e.g.:

a) "Pope Francis Shocks World, Endorses Donald Trump for President"

b) "FBI Agent Suspected in Hillary Email Leaks Found Dead in Apparent Murder-Suicide"

* Of course, these were all false !

> “Fake News,” not used more than 3 years ago – but today a favorite of Donald Trump -- though 4,229 - WP

> https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/fact-checker/wp/2018/08/01/president-trump-has-made-4229-false-or-misleading-claims-in-558-days/?utm_term=.fbe1f04753c2

> So popular that in 2017, the word of the year!

> A newsbook in Catalonia in 1654: a monster with “goat’s legs, a human body, seven arms and seven heads

> An English pamphlet 1611 tells of a Dutch woman who lived for 14 years without eating or drinking

> 1938 "War of the worlds" -- Orson Welles

Fake News Not New:

Moon Hoax Stories (NY Sun): Richard Adams Locke

* Giant man-bats that held animated conversations

* Goat-like creatures with blue skin

* A temple made of polished sapphire

*Reprinted from Edinburgh Journal of Science

- Boosted sales 9,000 to 19,000 + Times of London

> Fabricated story

> Untruthful news, lacking in context

>Misinformation (inaccurate information)

>Disinformation (false, deliberately created)

Fake News

Ethics & Communication

Mix-Matching Questions and Answers

Materials that need quotation marks around them:

* But underline the titles of -

• Books
• Journals
• Newspapers
• Magazines
• (All publications)

Put quotation marks around the titles of -

• Speeches
• Songs
• Papers
• Plays
• Tv/radio programs (e.g. "Today Show" or "Nightline")

Contempt:

• Disobedience of the court e.g.
• refusal to respond to a subpoena
• criticism of a judge
• refusal to pay remedies imposed by court
• a defendant’s refusal to stop talking during court session
• an attorney ignores court warnings against talking to reporters on the merits of a case

1. Shield laws:

Protect journalists from disclosing sources of confidential information for as long as possible except –

• 1966 Freedom of Information Act (FOIA)

• The federal government and all the states have open-meeting laws – often called “sunshine laws” – requiring the public’s business to be conducted in public.

a) police prove they have exhausted all efforts to obtain the information elsewhere and failed and only the journalist has it

b) police prove there is overriding public interest in the information that would warrant its disclosure

c) police show there is probable cause to believe the journalist has information that is clearly relevant to a specific probable violation of law

Attributions

and Quotes

• 1996 amended as Electronic Freedom of Information Act -- to improve access to computerized government records

2. Privacy Protection Act:

Defenses for

libel:

2. Fair comment:

1. Truth:

A proof that the matter being complained of is an honest expression of the writer's opinion on a matter of public interest based on facts accurately stated

Provable truth! Even if said by the police, verify, prove

• You are protected as long as you do not misstate any of the facts in your criticism or commentary

Passed by Congress 1980, and provides that law enforcement officers may not use search warrant to search newsrooms

• Instead, they must get a subpoena for documents which tells the reporter to hand over the material to law enforcement agency

4. The Actual Malice Test

3. Privilege:

The test arose from a 1960 advertisement for funds in the New York Times by the Committee to Defend Martin Luther King Jr. and the struggle for freedom in the South

Supreme Court in New York Times v. Sullivan, decided in 1964 that for public officials/public figures to win libel cases, they must prove "Actual Malice"

Reporters covering executive, judicial and legislative proceedings/hearings have "qualified privilege" (* also called “Conditional Privilege” or “Neutral Privilege”) to report what public officials or citizens say in these proceedings

“Actual Malice” --: “knowing and reckless disregard for the truth” i.e. the writer knew the truth when s(he) was investigating/doing the report but recklessly disregarded it and printed something else

The right of freedom of the press is provided for in the First Amendment:

• However, all of these access laws contain exemptions that keep some meetings private

•“Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.”

• All 50 states have similar open-records laws.

But certain laws tend to reduce the scope press freedom:

• reputation of an individual
• privacy of an individual
• copyright and intellectual property
• fair trial etc. etc.

Partial (incomplete) defenses:

(These do not win a libel case but only help to mitigate or lower the amount of monetary damages awarded against w writer)

Some guidelines for attribution

Freedom of Information Act

6. Publication of retraction (also called "corrigendum") – usually on:

• If a direct quote is more than one sentence long, place the attribution the end of first sentence e.g.:

• If you must identify a person by including a long title, it is better to begin the attribution with the verb e.g.:

• Do not attribute direct quotes to more than one person e.g.:

• Ordinarily, place the noun or pronoun before the verb in attributions e.g.:

"The car overturned at least three times," the police officer said. "None of the four passengers was hurt. Luckily, the car did not explode into flames."

• The first time you attribute a quote, identify speaker fully by the first &last names -- then use only last name subsequently to identify them

a) The page where the mistake first occurred

b) On a page specially meant for retractions

c) The front page

"Flames were shooting out everywhere," witnesses said. "Then electrical wires began falling, and voices were heard screaming."

"Everything is under control," the sheriff said.

"I enjoy the challenge," says Jack Berry, associate dean for graduate studies and research.

But, if direct quotes from different sources directly follow one another, start the second quotation with attribution to avoid confusion

Advantages or attraction of PPR:

Burdens placed on the requesting entity (e.g. the press):

Exemptions:

a) Be as specific as possible in citing the information needed

b) Direct the request to the appropriate agency or official

c) Pay reasonable costs associated with the search process and photocopying

i) Loosens the tongues of tight-lipped sources and gets them on the record

ii) Enhances accuracy of news report

iii) Serves as [partial] defense for libel in case a suit arises from publication of the story

• There are nine enumerated exemptions - under which agencies often base their refusal to disclose e.g. national security etc

• Agency has up to 20 days to comply or deny request

Defamation

Injury to reputation by false words that expose an individual to public hatred, shame, contempt, ridicule, disgrace, or that induce an evil opinion of one in the minds of right-thinking members of the society

News person's privilege, subpoena, Search Warrant and Contempt

Mass Communication Law

Remedies for libel:

Major remedy for injury to reputation is the award of monetary damage - to compensate the plaintiff for his/her loss and injury.

to punish & discourage defendant for current and future behavior

for specific proof of foreseeable or financial loss resulting from the libel is made

Punitive Damages:

Special: --

General:

for actual and presumed losses (i.e. for both proven and unproven financial and non-financial loss: hurt feelings, embarrassment, mental and emotional distress and physical consequences

• The first word in a quotation that is a complete sentence is capitalized, but the first word in a quotation that is not a complete sentence is not e.g.:

• He said, "Life is just one damned thing after another." – (correct!)

• He called journalism "history in a hurry." (- correct!)

• BUT,

He called journalism "History in a hurry." (- incorrect!)

Capitalization:

Practicing

Pre-Publication

Review (PPR)

(ii) Publication/

Communication:

(i) Defamation:

There must be an intentional communication by writer to a third party of the matter being complained about

The plaintiff cannot win a libel suit simply because a story is merely false; the words must injure reputation

(iii) Identification:

Elements or ingredients of libel:

Published defamation is not actionable unless the complaining party can establish that it was herself or himself that was defamed

• However, only the person who is identified can file a libel suit

• The victim's relatives cannot - even though they too may be embarrassed by the report

• If the victim is dead usually no one can file a suit for libel

(v) Fault:

Proof of certain level of fault/negligence on the part of the writer reporter : cross-check &verify before printing

(iv) Economic Loss:

The plaintiff in certain cases must also prove that s(he) suffered actual financial loss

Two types of libel:

(i) Libel per se: Libelous communication that is plain upon its face : "jerk," "thief," "murderer," “prostitute,” etc.

(ii) Libel per quod: Reference will have to be made to extrinsic circumstances to give the communication its necessary defamatory meaning

Verification of quotes

Correcting quotes

• All quotes should be verified because citizens and officials make mistakes in what they say

• When you cannot verify quotations check and verify before you print!

• Question: Should we correct grammatical errors in direct quotations?
• Yes! No!

Partial quotes (orphan quotes)

When a person's words may not be edited

Avoid!

e.g. The mayor said Cedar Falls will "sponsor one more" international trade fair this year

Quotes

• Important colloquial or rhythmic language: it makes speakers more credible, more interesting to readers

• Unusual phrasing that seems to be part of interviewee's personality: e.g.

• "It ain't over 'til it's over."

• Any statement consciously designed to be out of the ordinary

• Quotations that lack clear attribution to a speaker. Avoid!

• Do not name a source in one sentence and then deliver an un-attributed quotation in the following sentence or paragraph

• What is wrong with floating quotation is that readers do not know who is saying it: is it the person in preceding sentence or paragraph or forthcoming paragraph

• Provide attribution at the end of a direct quotation so that readers do not get confused as to who is making that statement

Floating Quotes

• Dots used to alert readers that some direct words or sentences of the speaker are deliberately omitted by the writer e.g.”

• "I have come to here tonight...and I have found it...necessary to shut down the press."

• When a sentence or more sentences are omitted there should be four dots (....) used to so indicate.

• The danger of using ellipsis marks is that the meaning of what was said could be distorted or lost

Quotations within quotation

Ellipsis Marks

Obscenity

[Rhetorical] Questions

• Would you quote obscenity?

• Some newspapers do not – except if it is essential to the story

• Others use the first letter followed by dashes - - - - -

• But doesn’t changing quotes affect the reporter or newspaper's credibility when news sources quoted see that what they said was different from that quoted in the press?

• Are we fair to correct grammatical errors for e.g. U.S. President, senators and fail to do so for some athletes or internationals whose first language is not English?

• When a quotation appears within another quotation, use double quotation marks to identify the overall quotation and single quotation marks (or an apostrophe on the keyboard) to indicate the quotation within the quotation.

• During his 1960 presidential campaign, John F. Kennedy joked, "I got a wire from my father that said: 'Dear Jack, Don't buy one vote more than necessary. I'll be damned if I'll pay for a landslide.'"

Quotations within quotations that are within quotations

• If a passage has quotation within a quotation that is within a quotation, use double quotation marks to indicate the third level of quotation

• The senator said, "I had a voter tell me, 'I'm fed up with tax cheats' getting away with "murder" and I want to see them pay.'"

General tips on quotations:

• Use quotations sparingly - to emphasize a point or change pace rather than to tell the entire story
• Place only the exact words of the source within quotation marks
• Each quotation should serve a purpose, e.g. to reveal the source's character, describe or emphasize a point
• All direct quotations should be clear, concise, relevant and effective
• Report only the source's responses, not the questions you asked
• Make sure quotations do not repeat facts reported elsewhere in the story

Other punctuation

• If attribution comes before a quotation that contains just one full sentence it should be followed by a comma e.g.:

• James Thurber said, "It is better to know some of the questions than all of the answers."

• If two or more sentences, it should be followed by a colon e.g.:
• Mark Twain said: "I apologize for writing a long letter. If I'd had more time, I'd have written a shorter one."

How to deal with off-the-record information

i) Know your newspaper's policies & rules on off-the-record – as some newspapers do not let reporters get away without a named source -- unless the editor knows the source

ii) Set ground rules before interview and clarify your terms

Paraphrasing quotes

• The key in paraphrasing quotes is clarification: better skip than confuse readers with it

• Do not quote anyone unless you are sure of what that person means

• When direct quotation may be lengthy/confusing paraphrase it -- but convey the meaning

• The shorter quotes you use the better

Anonymous Sources

Four types of information reporters may receive from a source during an interview

Reporting

The business of gathering information for immediate use

Methodologies

Question: What are the dangers of not naming a source in a story?

a) Takes away reporter's credibility

b) Source may lie and out to get someone: witch-hunting

c) The source may be floating a trial balloon to test public reaction on some intended policy, issue or event

Procedures/ways of doing things

Two types of questions

asked during interviews

REPORTING METHODOLOGIES

AND SOURCES

News Agencies/Wire Services

Most prominent are the “Big Three” (TNAs) – formed for profit:

a) Associated Press [1848] – USA [best photo news service]

b) Agence France Presse [1946] – France: was re-organized from ruins of Havas agency, 1st news agency in the world

Havas - founded 1835 by Charles Havas in France

c) Reuters [1851] – U.K. [best known for economic news/information to financial institutions in the world]

d) United Press International (UPI) – USA [1958] used to be among Big Four but now bouncing back due to Internet

TV News Wire Services:

Qualities of a reporter

1. Seeing and hearing:

Trends driving changes in media industry today are:

• Citizen Journalism
• Media Convergence

Both are technology-driven

a) Independent Television News (ITN) – U.K.

b) Reuters-TV – U.K. [re-named from VISNEWS – 1st TV news agency] -- the largest video news supplier in the world

c) ITN (Independent Television News) – U.K.

Class Exercise: Students: discuss ways social media affect coverage

what reporters write come from listening to people at news events: accident and crime scenes, meetings, conferences etc

Nature of News

Citizen Journalism

& Media Convergence

Criteria [Qualities] of News Stories

4. Prominence: Events of VIPs/prominent countries more news worthy than …..

This is why news is *Eurocentric -- all centered around Europe

b) Proximity: Event near home is more news worthy than farther away [Community town hall meeting] - only 15 % foreign news

But local media do not ignore distant event -- they *localize it i.e. bring local angle, local connection to it

i) People interested about local events/people

iii) Obtaining [government] news in some countries is difficult (due to harsh press laws e.g. Official Secrets Acts vs. FOIA

iv) Some countries license journalists

ii) High cost maintaining overseas bureau/reporters and cut in # of

5. Impact: Events that affect more people & greater magnitude [Earthquake & Parkersburg tornado; New Jersey flood]

6. Novelty: Events of the firsts, lasts and only

a) Timeliness: Event happening now is more news-worthy than past event

However, print media cannot compete with R/TV in timeliness. How can they?

3. Rarity : The odd, rare, strange, bizarre and unusual makes news

This is why U.S. media functions like “radar screen” not “window screen”

7. Human Interest: People are interested in others with special problems, achievements & experiences

• Whatever makes readers to say: “Gee, whiz!”

• Whatever makes people talk

• Anything we know today we did not know previously [planetary and archaeological discoveries]

Q: What is news?

2. Note taking

From American perspective:

What is the implication for this form of journalism?

• A commodity and state of mind – whatever appeals to editor’s mind

• A commodity because like most goods raw news is gathered, processed, packaged and sold by news wire services

use short hand or intelligent abbreviations

Techniques in handling the bombshell question

3. Finding information

a good reporter may not know everything but must know how to find information:

From American perspective:

• A commodity and state of mind – whatever appeals to editor’s mind

• A commodity because like most goods raw news is gathered, processed, packaged and sold by news wire services

• what to look up
• where to look up
• whom to talk to – then:

= cross-check

= verify

= cross reference --- more than one source (other reporters, sources, your own notes etc)

Changing Nature of Sources of News

4. Interviewing

A meeting between reporter & news source -- reporter asks and news source answers questions [image of reporter interviewing]

Audiences and News Selection

Traditionally, editor was the “gatekeeper” & selected what readers consumed

But technology has changed this role, and today, consumers select what, where & when to read

5 SOURCES OF NEWS FOR NEWSPAPERS:

4. Freelance Journalists: Privately employed journalists who hunt news, features and photographs they sell to media houses

2. Wire (News) Services/News Agencies -- (2nd source of news for media):

Today, nature of news has changed & includes “soft news” also called “easy-to-digest stuff” – news that entertains or informs with emphasis on human interest and novelty and less immediacy e.g.

• profile on interesting people
• dieting
• weight loss
• physical fitness
• vacation/recreation
• entertainment
• how-to-do-it (type of information)

Traditionally, news is “hard core” stuff – timely events with conflicts that have just happened e.g.

• Crimes
• Fire
• Meetings
• Rallies
• court testimonies
• budget deficit
• War
• Trade etc.

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Three Categories of news Occurrences

Interviewing victims of

Research shows more people want to read soft than hard news

Another type of news is *Breaking news” – same day event or just unfolding

3. Press Releases: news stories, features, profiles, documentaries about an organization & its staff

5. The web: Research shows all journalists use the Internet regularly as a reporting tool: for research and story ideas

1. Reporters (most important sources of news and account for most news for media houses), and are used in a number of ways as: -

d) If interviewed starts crying, stop the interview, ask if you can get him/her a glass of water, tissue or be quiet for a while or you can ask if you can come back at a later time, depending on the severity of the situation

b) Mobile Journalists (MoJos) who comb the neighborhood for ultra-local community news that supplements news reported by main stream media but yet of interest to local folks

types of reporters

MoJo’s tools: wireless laptop, digital camera, video phone, cellular phone

• But do not fail to attempt to interview them because to some, talking about grief is a form of catharsis
• Respect their needs

Additional tips for beat reporters

Be prepared &:

• familiarize yourself with documents, records, history & regulations about your beat by –
• talking to sources
• reading magazines, newspapers/periodicals
• watching/listening to current affairs etc.

• Read for background information (on your story idea or subject)
• use Internet, note continuing issues, become familiar with laws governing your beat, know your state’s open record laws
• Talk to sources
• your predecessor(s) on that beat
• city editor
• veterans in the newsroom

a) general assignment reporters (“roving reporters)” -- cover virtually every event:

*town meetings

*conventions

*court hearings

*parents Teachers Association meetings

*Red Cross meetings

*local sports

*fire etc.

c) beat reporters who are assigned to specific beats (physical places):

*airports

*court houses

*police stations

*White House

*Capitol Building

*Congress etc.

Tips for the beat reporter

• 1st day meet everyone - executives, clerks, secretaries, typists, assistants, messengers, cleaners etc.

• Build rapport, trust and maintain cordial relationship with everyone

• Give business card with name, [email] address, phone & fax #s for breaking news

Changing Nature of News

Searches [for news stories and ideas for stories]

*Every place, everywhere: in the grocery line, on airplane everywhere!

• Social service directories – compiled by cities and counties contains profiles of agencies that provide different services in the area
• Advertisements – find out e.g. why the major’s house is advertised for sale: is he resigning; find out the types of jobs advertised most (it can be of interest to job-seeking readers)

Other Story Ideas:

• People – listening to, and eavesdropping at a café, restaurant, laundry mart, shop while off duty
• Other publications – books, magazines, newspapers, journals etc for new angles [don’t ever say “that has been done before]
• Government reports – can provide valuable statistics to do a story on unemployment, welfare, crime etc.
• Your own newspaper – reporters practice “hit-and-run” journalism; therefore find out if there is a follow up and a human interest perspective

• Take up phone book spot out those with names of famous and rich persons: do a story on how it feels being called by those names and how people relate to them
• Do a story on generational gap and the differences in perceptions of the penny (older generation will care to pick a penny on the ground and the young may not care): ask what a penny could buy in the past
• A story of a woman who was abused 20 years: let her tell her story and how others can deal with it (also others with problems in the past)
• Do a story on cellular phone usage during church service: ask minister how they feel about it

• Talk to dry cleaners and find out what people leave in their pockets – gee, whiz! Marijuana, under wears, dollar bills, tickets, indiscrete photos, and weird objects
• Postmasters – for unusual things they have mailed for people
• How heavy are women’s purses? Do a story on this. Find out what they have in them
• A story on the traffic volunteer. It may even help clear misconception about him/her
• Talk to Customs/Immigration on what people bring into/take out of the country – you’ll be surprised (their pets: reptiles, cats, birds in expensive cages)
• Do a story on people who pamper their pets: some spend $1000s to buy pet beds, pillows, maintenance etc

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Questions – inclass

• What prepares reporters and media houses to handle breaking news?

• What special qualities prepare a reporter to be able to handle breaking news?

Distinguish between:

a)Main bar: A report about the main or lead story

b)Side bar: A secondary but related story that can add color, human interest perspective or historical background to a news story

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Conclusions of American Society of Newspaper Editors’ (ASNE):Readers --

• Want news in their newspapers
• Want news relevant & focused on them & community
• Do not want media ignore happenings elsewhere
• Not fooled by gimmicks & fancy page design: they will read them but want well reported, edited, written news in print, online, R/TV
• Want practical, useful information that helps them live their lives e.g.
• tips & advice on “how-to-do-it” type of information e.g.

Accuracy – correct spelling of names, quotes, figures/data (must add up), context,

• lose weight, overcome health issues, locate best deals

Media should identify solutions to human problems & point out where help can be found & how citizens can be involved in making a difference/solving problems

• Objectivity – best obtainable truth (Bob Woodward), so important that….

• In 1947, Hutchins Commission report required journalists to be socially responsible: truthful, objective, accurate, fair, impartial, unbiased etc.

• Testy time for US media objectivity was Joseph McCarthy era -- journalists printed one side of story without verification

b) Secondary source -- contains second-hand information on a subject or issue e.g.:

*books

*someone who talked to a witness e.g.:

• public safety officials
• lawyers
• next door neighbor

*journal articles

*term papers

*magazines etc.

3 Categories

of news --

Richard

Wurman:

Journalism Values: Objectivity, Fairness, Accuracy and Framing

What purpose(s) would it serve me?

1. To get facts/figures/quotes accurately - especially if interview is about a controversial issue

2. No one can deny what has been said or accuse you of misquoting them if everything is recorded

3. Government officials are nowadays used to talking into microphones and tape recorders

interviewing

Two Types of Sources of Information [reporters use]

tip: Use “Up-down principle” – talk to people directly involved in the issue or event. Go down or up the organization ladder. Or you may start either from top or down

Question (in-class): Are journalists biased? In what ways?

Consider reportage of:

• Celebrities
• War
• Other races
• Other genders

*eye witness

*interviewees

*Court records

*Government White Paper

*Legal documents

*maps

*memoirs, diaries, almanacs, letters, speeches etc

a) Primary source of information -- contains firsthand information on an issue or subject

AVOID

• tip: Avoid equivocal questions – questions subject to different meanings/interpretations

• tip: Avoid leading questions – questions asked in a way to influence responses in the direction you want

Fairness – impartial (like a referee): must be seen by players and fans as fair otherwise judgment will not be trusted – probably unlike columnists, bloggers, opinion writers

• Find every viewpoint of story because rarely will there be one viewpoint

• Provide reply/commentary opportunity to readers

• Avoid own biases/stereotypes

Tape

Recorders