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http://www.dialectsarchive.com/new-york-7
Linguistic Variable:
"r" (and [θ])
Location:
Kiesling (2009)
Linguistic Variable:
8 phonological variables
http://www.dialectsarchive.com/northern-ireland-3
New York City, specifically Saks, Macy's and S. Klein department stores
1. Characterize the evolution of variation studies.
Belfast, Northern Ireland
Location:
Participants:
2. Critically analyze the methods employed therein.
Participants:
personnel/people encountered in the stores (n=68, n=125 and n=71, respectively)
Podesva (2004, 2007)
46 men and women in Ballymacarrett, Hammer and Clonard; 6 point participation network scale
3. Summarize the basic findings of canonical studies.
Methodology:
informal question and request for clarification
Methodology:
modified participant-observer technique (i.e. "friend-of-a-friend")
Findings:
use of the standard [θ] increased as formality increased (casual speech--careful speech--reading style--word lists) (Figure 7.3, p. 172); similar behavior evidenced across socio-economic classes (SEC) (Figure 7.3, p. 172)
both forms used in each location, though substantially less in S. Klein (Table 7.1, p. 172); in general more standard forms obtained in the request for clarification (Figure 7.3, p. 173); reduced form more prevalent before a C(onsonant) (Figure 7.3, p. 173); in Saks, older people used more reduced forms, but in Macy's they used less; hypercorrection by lower middle class (Figure 7.4, p. 174)
Findings:
significant correlations with strong networks were found for the linguistic variables examined in Ballymacarrett; men in Ballymacarrett used more vernacular language than women
Goodwin & Alim (2010)
Importance:
demonstrated (1) hypercorrection by lower-middle class and (2) regularity of patterns of pronunciation according to SEC
Importance:
examined the impact of local social networks and kinship ties
Constraints (pg. 181-182):
Cheshire (1978)
deletion of final stops in clusters (e.g. [d])
Linguistic Variable:
Linguistic Variable:
[ŋ]
1. What are the main differences between the 3 types of variation studies examined?
http://www.dialectsarchive.com/massachusetts-9
Washington, D.C.
Location:
New England
Location:
African Americans
Participants:
1st wave:"establish correlations between predetermined macro-level social categories and particular linguistic variables" (p. 170)
Participants:
boys (n=12) and girls (n=12) 3-10 years of age
Methodology:
recorded speech
Sub-groups:
Keisling (1998):
2nd wave:"focus on speaker agency"; vernacular speech remains central; "explain the variation using ethnographically determined social categories and cultural norms" (p. 185)
'model' boy (n=1) and 'typical' boy (n=1)
Findings:
the phonological environment of the variable of interest affects the variable realized (Table 7.3, p. 181); dovetail with the findings of Wolfram (1969) which examined morphological- and syntactic-based clusters (burned up vs. cold out)
interviews; two formal and one informal
Methodology:
Bailey (1973) and Bickerton (1971):
3rd wave: "how linguistic practices are the means through which speakers position themselves as social beings" (p. 189); "focus on speaker agency" (p. 192)
Eckert (1989, 2000)
Findings:
the most formal interview favored the non-reduced form (Figure 7.2, p. 171); the 'model' boy showed a clear preference for the non-reduced form while the 'typical' boy showed no strong preference; hypothesized effect of so-called everyday activity verbs; boys used more reduced forms than girls
Importance:
linguistic variables were found to interact with social variables
2. What common components remain from one wave to the next?
Importance:
one of the earliest variation studies; hinted at variation as a function of lexical differences (pg. 171; demonstrated gender differences (pg. 172)
Linguistic Variable:
[ŋ], [tʰ], [h] i.a.
http://www.dialectsarchive.com/england-11
Norwich, England
Location:
Participants:
lower/middle/upper working class to lower/middle middle class men and women (n=10 per SEC)
Methodology:
word list, reading, formal and casual speech
Findings:
the [ŋ] variable is related to class (Figure 7.5, p. 176) and gender (Table 7.2, p. 177): the higher the class, the more use of the standard form; females use more standard forms)
Importance:
Trudgill found convergent accommodation in his speech; demonstrated (1)"hypercorrection" by lower-middle class and (2) regularity of patterns of pronunciation according to SEC