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Species Interactions
5
Species Interactions
Mustard Hill Coral (Porites Astreoides)
How does P. astreoides live?
- Coral are diverse creatures living in different habitats all over the world.
- P. astreoides is found on reefs all across the Caribbean. It generally lives in waters from 0.5 to 50m deep.
- As a reef-building coral, P. astreoides grows low along the substrate, building on itself as it ages, and sometimes building over other coral. It can be encrusting, or grow as individual small colonies.
Habitat
Week 4
Abiotic Factors
Abiotic factors are those facets of an ecosystem that never have, and never will, have a life cycle.
They include light, weather, climate, temperature, soil/substrate, wind, and pollution.
For coral, sunlight, water flow, and temperature are consistently important.
Photosynthesis
Sunlight
Coral are a symbiosis between and a cnidarian and a photosynthetic algae called zooxanthellae
Zooxanthellae use energy from sunlight to perform photosynthesis, turning carbon dioxide and water into sugars, lipids, and oxygen.
image courtesy of https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-52739-4.X5000-1
How does water flow affect coral?
Water Flow
- Water flow brings food. Because coral are sessile, they depend on the flow of water to bring plankton and food particles within reach of their tentacles.
- Water flow also removes metabolic waste from the area.
- Water flow determines the distribution of gametes and larvae.
P. astreoides prefers temperatures from 70°F to 85°F
Temperature
- Water temperature is extremely important to corals.
- Corals can thrive in temperatures as low as 39°F and as high as 85°F. Some can survive in temperatures as high as 104°F for a short period of time. (Oceanservice, 2021)
- Temperatures that are too high can cause zooxanthellae to die and be expelled from the coral polyps, causing the coral to starve to death. This is known as coral bleaching.
Biotic Factors
- Biotic factors are living organisms that have an impact on an ecosystem.
- They include all animals, plants, algae, and bacteria.
- These organisms interact with each other and with the surrounding abiotic factors to create an ecosystem.
Symbiosis
Symbiosis occurs when organisms inhabit the same ecosystem and interact with each other over a period of time.
Corals have a mutualistic symbiotic relationship with Zooxanthellae, as mentioned under 'Photosynthesis', but they are also involved in commensalistic relationships.
Symbionts
An important houseguest...
image courtesy of Smithsonian Ocean: https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/invertebrates/zooxanthellae-and-coral-bleaching
Zooxanthellae
Zooxanthellae are microscopic alga that live within coral polyps.
They perform photosynthesis and provide upwards of 60% of the nutrients and energy coral require to survive.
The relationship is mutualistic; coral get a constant source of food and zooxanthellae get a place to live.
Bacteria are helpers
P. astreoides has a mutualistic relationship with the Roseobacter and Marinobacter families of bacteria.
Studies have shown that these bacteria live on the coral and help with nitrogen fixation, pathogen resistance, and larval induction or settlement.
Roseobacter and Marinobacter images courtesy of https://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/
Roseobacter and Marinobacter
Commensalism
Commensalism is a symbiotic relationship in which one organism benefits and the other is not affected.
Christmas Tree Worms
(Spirobranchus giganteus)
One such relationship exists between P. astreoides and S. giganteus, the Christmas Tree Worm. The Christmas Tree worm gets a place to live, and the coral gets nothing.
The larval form of the worms lands on the calcium carbonate skeleton of the coral and is soon overgrown. The feathery appendages that give the worm its name are used for respiration and to catch phytoplankton (NOAA, 2013).
What do P. astreoides eat?
Prey
- Bacteria and zooplankton make up the remainder of the food for P. astreoides.
- The coral feeds diurnally and nocturnally, by extending the tentacles of its polyps into the water surrounding it.
Population Interactions
A population is a group of individuals of the same species livng in the same area at the same time that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring.
Every population in a habitat is impacted by the other populations, either directly or indirectly. As before, there are both biotic and abiotic factors that affect populations.
The interactions between different populations of different species living in the same area and competing for the same resources are:
Population & Community Interactions
Week 5 & 6
Community Interactions
Porites astreoides
Biotic Factors
Consumer
Mutualism
Commensalism
Parasitism
Caribbean Coralsnail
(Coralliophila caribaea)
Marine corallivore sea snail in the family Muricidae.
Caribbean Coralsnail (Coralliophila caribaea)
https://panamabiota.org/stri/taxa/index.php?tid=23769
Butterfly Fish
(Family Chaetodontidae)
Butterfly Fish (Family Chaetodontidae)
- corallivorous, meaning they consume coral. many species of butterfly fish ONLY consume coral, and are selective in which species they consume
- some also consume algae
- bites from butterfly fish may increase the spread of disease and contribute to coral death
- (Luthfi, 2017)
https://www.risingtideconservation.org/category/aquacultured-fish/
Carribean Reef Shark (Carcharhinus perezii)
Subtropical elasmobranch, usually found on reefs at less than 30 m deep (Carpenter, n.d.). Usually feeds on bony fish but is considered aggressive.
Carribean Reef Shark ( Carcharhinus perezii)
Carcharhinus perezii
Picture by Minguell, C.
https://www.fishbase.de/summary/879
Grouper
(Cephalopholis cruentata)
A ray-finned bony fish found in the Gulf of Mexico ranging from 20-40 cm in size. A nocturnal predator, feeding primarily on bony fishes (Carpenter c, n.d.).
Grouper (Cephalopholis cruentata)
Cephalopholis cruentata
Picture by Steele, M.A.
https://www.fishbase.de/summary/Cephalopholis-cruentata.html
Caribbean Sharpnose Shark
Rhizoprionodon porosus
Small (75cm) elasmobranch common in bays and estuaries. Feeds on bony fishes, snails, squid, and shrimp (Carpenter b, n.d.)
Caribbean Sharpnose Shark (Rhizoprionodon porosis)
https://www.fishbase.se/photos/thumbnailssummary.php?ID=903
Kemp's Ridley Sea Turtle (Lepidochelys kempii)
One of the smaller sea turtles, reaching a little more than two feet and 100 pounds. The Kemp's Ridley has a tomium (beak) made for crushing and feeds on crustaceans, mollusks, jellyfish and some vegetation.
Caribbean Reef Octopus (Octopus briareus)
Carnivorous cephalopod known to eat crustaceans, small gastropods, and even other Caribbean Reef Octopuses.
Caribbean Reef Octopus (Octopus briareus)
https://panamabiota.org/stri/collections/individual/index.php?occid=1908263
(Stibarobdella macrothela)
parasitic segmented worm feeding off Caribbean elasmobranchs
Stibarobdella macrothela
Jennifer W. Trimble, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University
Stoplight Parrotfish (Sparisoma viride)
- consume algae living on coral
- also munch on bits of coral
- coral is ground up by strong teeth in their mouths and throats
- coral pieces are excreted as sand, forming the substrate of the reef and much of the sand that washes up on beaches.
"COVER PHOTOGRAPH: STOPLIGHT PARROTFISH, PALM BEACH COUNTY, FLORIDA," Journal of Coastal Research 2009(256), (1 November 2009). https://doi.org/10.2112/1551-5036-25.6.ii
Snappers
(Family Luthjanidae)
Ray-finned, carnivorous, bony fish found throughout the tropics.
Snappers (Lutjanidae)
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lutjanus_apodus2.jpg
Skipjack
(Caranx ruber)
Skipjack
(Caranx ruber)
Ray-finned bony fish of the Caribbean. Feeds on bony fish, shrimp and other invertebrates.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Caranx_ruber_(bar_jack)_(San_Salvador_Island,_Bahamas)_1_(16151297911).jpg
Purple-Mouthed Moray Eel
(Gymnothorax vicinus )
Moray Eels (Family Muraenidae)
Ray-finned fish of the Caribbean. Nocturnal predator feeding on crustaceans, invertebrates, and other bony fish.
https://reefguide.org/purplemouthmoray.html
Jewfish
(Epinephelus itjara)
Jewfish (Epinephelus itajara)
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Epinephelus_itajara.jpg
Zooxanthellae
- microscopic algae in a mutualistic relationship with coral.
- perform photosynthesis, provide sugars and oxygen to coral in exchange for a place to live
Roseobacter and Marinobacter
Roseobacter and Marinobacter
- live on the coral
- help with nitrogen fixation
- improve pathogen resistance
- preapre for larval induction or settlement.
Christmas Tree Worm
Spirobranchus giganteus
https://sanctuaries.noaa.gov/pgallery/pgflower/living/living_26.html
Christmas Tree Worm
(Spirobranchus giganteus)
- A polychaete worm that lives on P. astreoides.
- Larval worms land on the coral and their tubes are soon overgrown.
- They extend feathery appendages which are used for respiration and catching food.
Abiotic Factors
Many factors affect populations and communities. Some are inherent in the environment, some are introduced or induced by humans. These factors usually have negative impacts on population size, reproduction rates, and survivability.
What is Global Warming?
Global Warming
Global warming is an increase in the average temperature across Earth's surface and beneath its oceans.
One of the duties of the ocean is to absorb and redistribute heat, but when the amount of heat absorbed is greater than the amount of heat released, the temperature of the ocean increases.
This may not sound like a big problem, but many of the ocean's creatures cannot adapt to such changes in temperature.
Coral is one of them.
Unfortunately for coral, zooxanthellae provide up to 90% of their energy. Without them, the corals starve.
Coral maintains a symbiotic relationship with microscopic zooxanthellae. Zooxanthellae perform photosynthesis and share the nutrients and oxygen they produce with the coral, which provides them a place to live and access to sunlight.
Unfortunately, zooxanthellae are sensitive creatures, and changes in water temperatures can lead them to die. When they die, they begin to release toxins the coral recognizes as harmful, so the coral expels the dying and dead zooxanthellae. This is called CORAL BLEACHING.
Coral Bleaching
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bleachedcoral.jpg
Ocean Acidification
Ocean acidification is a by-product of increased carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere.
A large amount of that carbon dioxide is absorbed into the ocean, creating carbonic acid, which is making the ocean more acidic.
This higher acidity makes it difficult for coral to form their calcium carbonate skeletons, and increases the dissolution rate of the shells of marine organisms such as crustaceans and mollusks.
(Shape of Life, n.d.)
Pollution
Pollution takes many forms and most are the direct result of human activity.
Pollution
Sediment
Sediments include small particles of sand and debris. Some is from natural erosion, but most is from human activity. These particles block light and smother larvae on the coral reef.
Plastics
Plastic waste in the form of bottles, shards, plastic bags, and more end up in the ocean. Not only do they release toxins as they degrade, they are often confused for food and consumed by wildlife, causing death and illness. Plastic does not go away, the pieces simply become smaller and smaller until they are temed microplastics. These plastics make their way up the food chain, poisoning organisms as they go.
Fertilizer
Fertilizers used on agricultural concerns and yards get washed into waterways by rainfall and make theri way to the ocean through the watershed. They can boost the growth of microorganisms, which can in turn lead to an imbalance in populations on the reef.
An indirect effect...
Crown of Thorns Sea Star
Off the coast of Australia, fertilizer runoff has increased the growth of zooplankton, which is the food of choice for juvenile Crown of Thorns starfish. These starfish are voracious corallivores, and they can decimate a reef if their population is unchecked.
There are other possible causes for the increase in Crown of Thorns populations, including overfishing of their natural predators and nutrient reallocation from tsunamis (National Marine Sanctuary Foundation, 2020).
The unnatural boom in their population has endangered large areas of the Great Barrier Reef.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Crown_of_Thorns_Starfish_(5457578925).jpg
References
- NOAA. (2014, August 1). In what types of water do corals live? NOAA's National Ocean Service. Retrieved July 7, 2022, from https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/coralwaters.html#:~:text=Reef%2Dbuilding%20corals%20cannot%20tolerate,%C2%B0%20Celsius)%20for%20short%20periods.
- Rowland, A. (n.d.). Porites astreoides, mustard hill coral. Marine Invertebrates of Bermuda. Retrieved July 7, 2022, from http://www.thecephalopodpage.org/MarineInvertebrateZoology/Poritesatreoides.html
- Porites astreoides (2020). World Species. Retrieved July 7, 2022 from, https://worldspecies.org/ntaxa/1904759
- NOAA. (2017, July 31). Christmas tree worms (Spirobranchus giganteus). National Marine Sanctuaries. Retrieved July 16, 2022, from https://sanctuaries.noaa.gov/pgallery/pgflower/living/living_26.html
- NOAA. (2013, June 1). What are Christmas tree worms? NOAA's National Ocean Service. Retrieved July 16, 2022, from https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/xmas-tree.html
- Lutfi, O.M., Siagian, J.A., (2017). Monitoring of Corallivorous Fish’s Bites on Poriteslobata at South Java Sea, Indonesia. International Journal of Applied Environmental Sciences, 12 (1), 145-154. https://www.ripublication.com/ijaes17/ijaesv12n1_09.pdf
- Carpenter, K.E. (n.d.). Carcharhinus perezii (Poey, 1876): Caribbean reef shark. Fishbase. https://www.fishbase.de/summary/879
- Carpenter, K.E. (n.d.). Carpenter, K.E. (n.d.). Rhizoprionodon porosus (Poey, 1861): Caribbean sharpnose shark. Fishbase. https://www.fishbase.de/summary/Rhizoprionodon-porosus.html
- National Museum of Natural History. (n.d.) Stibarobdella macrothela (Schmarda 1861), Encyclopdia of Life. https://eol.org/pages/464901
- Shape of Life. (n,d,) Ocean acidification. https://www.shapeoflife.org/blog/ocean-acidification
- National Marine Sanctuary Foundation. (2020, May 29). Sea Wonder: Crown of Thorns Starfish. https://marinesanctuary.org/blog/sea-wonder-crown-of-thorns-starfish/
References
Bibliography
- https://animaldiversity.org/
- Hoeksema, B.W., Wels, D., van der Schoot, R.J., ten Hove, H.A. (2019). Coral injuries caused by Spirobranchus opercula with and without epibiotic turf algae at Curaçao. Marine Biology, 166, 60. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00227-019-3504-6
- https://sta.uwi.edu/fst/lifesciences/sites/default/files/lifesciences/documents/ogatt/Porites_astreoides%20-%20Mustard%20Hill%20Coral.pdf