Biology 2.6

Rotokare Scenic Reserve

http://www.rotokare.org.nz/About-Us/

History

Read the information and watch the Rotokare video clip - once you have looked at the information in Understanding NZ's Ecological History - write a paragraph explaining the importance of sanctuary's like Rotokare in New Zealand

Discover Xcluder - Predator Proof Fences

Xcuder

Pest Proof

Fences

http://www.rotokare.org.nz/About-Us/Fence/

Field Trip Information

You are only at Rotokare for a short amount of time - and this is your only opportunity to gather the data you will need to complete this assessment. Ensure you ask the educator and education volunteers plenty of questions.

Rotokare relies on knowledgeable volunteers to help run these programmes, please be respectful always to these essential helpers.

Succession

The process by which the structure of a biological community evolves over time. Two different types of succession—primary and secondary—have been distinguished. Primary succession occurs in essentially lifeless areas—regions in which the soil is incapable of sustaining life as a result of such .

Zonation

•Definition: The distribution of species into visible bands or zones along an environmental gradient

•On the rocky shore, intertidal species occur in horizontal zones determined by their tolerance to abiotic stresses and interspecific interactions. Similar patterns can be seen with plants on mountains

Reasons for stratification:

Although it is common to see New Zealand native plants in backyards throughout NZ, by observing them in a natural forest community, we can examine how each species is uniquely suited to thrive within its realised niche. Considering the abiotic factors, the interspecific relationships and the structural, physiological and behavioural adaptations of species within the forest community, we can uncover reasons for the vertical layering of species that produce the community pattern of stratification. (accessed from http://mrcoopersbioblog.blogspot.co.nz/p/year-12-ecology.html)

Healthy bush is characterised by a deep covering of leaves on the ground (leaf litter) which, together with rotting logs and branches, provide ideal growing conditions for ferns, mosses, lichens and germinating seeds and seedlings.

Above the forest floor there should be an understory or shrub layer, and sub-canopy layer, making it difficult to see far into the bush before there is a ‘wall’ of vegetation. Shrubs such as coprosmas, kawakawa, mingimingi and hangehange occupy the layer from a height of approximately 20 cm to 2.5 m.

Above this, are the taller sub-canopy trees which could include nikau, lancewood, rangiora, mahoe, pate, putaputaweta and pigeonwood,which form a layer between the understory/shrub layer and the canopy.

Below the canopy you will also find saplings of various ages waiting to change from juvenile ("Christmas tree shaped" to adult "broccoli" forms once gaps left by older trees as they fall/die are left.

A healthy canopy will be almost continuous (except for tree-fall gaps) and will usually comprise a variety of species, with different trees dominating over time as they compete for space in the canopy. Common canopy trees could be rimu, kahikatea, tawa, and titoki When looking up into the canopy you should see climbing vines (such as rata and supplejack) and different species of epiphyte e.g. Astelia (kowharawhara or perching lily) The final layer, the ‘emergents’, are particularly tall trees that tower above the surrounding canopy e.g. kahitakatea, totara and rimu.

Abiotic factors such as light intensity, wind strength, and humidity can all play a role in influencing the growth and success of each plant. Generally, light intensity and wind strength are highest in the emergent and canopy layers, whereas humidity is greatest in the leaf litter and ground cover areas where light is blocked out by the towering trees above.

Different species are always in competition with one another. As the plants grow, they compete with one another for space, sunlight, water, nutrition and pollinators/seed dispersal partners. To reduce this competition, each species has developed different adaptations that allow them to become specialised to live in a particular niche. Below are common adaptations and the advantage that each adaptation provides.

The following relationships describe how species interact and serve as biotic factors which affect plant growth.

1) Competition - Plants compete for sunlight and water, both required for photosynthesis. As described above, some behavioural adaptations account for competitive strategies such as the broccoli shaped canopy trees blocking out the sunlight for plants below. Plants also compete for water and the roots of neighbouring trees battle for nutrient rich soil and area where they can absorb rainfall. In one extreme version of competition, the kauri actually loses its leaves which are highly acidic, making the soil around them impossible for seeds of other plants to grow.

2) Commensalism - Some plants benefit from relying on other plant species without causing harm to the neighbouring plant. Epiphytes often arrive at their location through the help of birds. Seeds high in the tree-tops germinate and the plants growing there benefit from greater light intensity. The host tree is not harmed in this type of relationship, nor do they benefit.

3) Exploitation (Parasitisim) - Lianes and vines may use a host tree for support, reducing the need for them to grow their own supportive tissues when young. Plants such as the climbing rata grow to the top of host trees then block out the sun and strangle their host. Other trees may actually grow roots into their host tree to gain water and nutrition.

4) Mutualism - this is a relationship where both organisms benefit from their close interaction.

Things to think about....

• How does one layer affect / modify the conditions for the layer beneath it eg: Canopy trees affect the conditions for the sub-canopy layer.

• How have trees and plants adapted to these alterend abiotic conditions?

• Competition for trees and plants in stratified forests comes in the form of competition for space and nutrients, but most importantly light intensity

Gause's Law

Interspecific & Intraspecific

Dacrycarpus dacrydioides

Kahikatea / White Pine

Kahikatea

They are the oldest member of the ancient Podocarp family and have been around for more than 160 million years. Kahikatea is sometimes called dinosaur trees because they existed alongside the dinosaurs during the Jurassic period. They support whole ecosystems on their trunks and branches. A scientist once found 28 different plants living on one tree. They love fertile swampy ground which i

The tree grows to a height of 55 m with a trunk exceeding one m in diameter and is buttressed at the base and lives for over 500 years.

.

The leaves are spirally arranged on young plants, they are awl-shaped 3 to 8 mm long and scale-like on mature trees, 1 to 3 mm long, The seeds are dispersed by birds which eat the fleshy scale and pass the seeds in their droppings.

For Maori, the kahikatea had many uses. The fleshy aril or koroi was an important food resource and was served at feasts in great amounts. The constructed the waka (canoe) with it. Soot obtained from burning the heartwood supplied a pigment for traditional tattooing (ta moko). The wood was also favoured for making bird spears.

Prumnopitys taxifolia

Matai / Black Pine

Matai

Broad crown on stout upright spreading branches. It grows up to 33 m high, with a trunk up to 2.35 m diameter and is thought to have a life span of a 1000 years. It has grey-brown dotted bark that flakes off in thick round or oval chunks, whitish underneath, leaving red patches on the trunk. A Podocarpus spicatus has a long-lasting juvenile stage. A seedling it has long flexible drooping branches with occasional brown, pale yellow, or dirty white leaves. After a number of years, the adult tree begins to grow out of the top of the juvenile shrub and then the divaricating branchlets will wither and drop off.

The adult leaves of the Matai are dark green above, with a silvery-blue undersurface and are linear to sickle-shaped 10–15 mm long and 1.5–2 mm broad. All leaves have round tips with a small point. The fruit is a fleshy, and the seeds are dispersed by the Kereru (New Zealand Pigeon), which eats the 'berries' and passes the seeds in its droppings.

The hard timber of this tree was used extensively in New Zealand for flooring during the mid-20th century. Matai is not threatened, although as a forest-type it has been greatly reduced through widespread logging. Very few intact examples of Matai-dominated forest remain.

Podocarpus totara

Totara

Totara

A conifer reaching 30m high with a diameter of up to 2.5m. It has thick stringy bark and its leaves are a dark green-brownish colour and are 13-25 mm long, linear and sharp pointed.

New Zealand Totara is Podocarp tree with separate sexes.

The Maori prized this forest tree more highly than any other because of the remarkable qualities of its timber. The heartwood is very durable and the Maori found the wood could be readily split and shaped with primitive stone tools for canoes, building, and carving.

Dacrydium cupressinum Rimu / Red Pine

Rimu is a slow-growing conifer tree, eventually attaining a height of up to 50m although most surviving large trees are 20 to 35m tall. The trunk is usually about 1m but can be as much as 2m in diameter. The bark scales off in large flakes. The branchlets have a distinctive weeping form. The leaves are small and awl-shaped and the mature leaves are fine and sharp. The cones are set at irregular intervals and males and females are on separate trees.

The large trees can be anything up from 700 to 800 or even 1,000 years old.

The small cones (5mm) which form at the end of branchlets of female trees take about 18 months to ripen, and the seeds are produced only every 5 to 6 years.

The red fruit cup that carries the seed is edible. The bitter gum was applied to wounds to stop bleeding and the leaves were used to heal wounds. The bruised inner bark was applied to burns.

Rimu

Adaptations

- Emergent Trees

Canopy tree & plant adaptations

Beilschmiedia tawa

Tawa

Tawa is often the dominant canopy species in lowland forests . Individual specimens may grow up to 30 metres or more in height with trunks up to 1.2 metres in diameter, and they have smooth dark bark. Its leaves are willowy green and paler underneath. Produces small inconspicuous flowers compared to the 2 - 3.5 cm long fruit of a dark red plum colour. With such large fruits the Tawa is notable for the fact that it relies solely on the Kereru (New Zealand Woodpigeon) and, (where present), the North Island Kokako for dispersal of its seed. These are the only remaining birds from New Zealand's original biota large enough to eat the fruits of this tree and pass the seeds through their guts and excrete them unharmed.

The Maori use to soak, dry and pulp the fruit for food.

Tawa can also support significant epiphyte gardens in their canopies, which are one of the few habitats known to be frequented by the arboreal striped skink.

Tawa

Corynocarpus laevigatus

Karaka

Karaka

The bold, glossy leaves of this broadleaf tree make the karaka a distinctive feature of coastal lowland forests, however they are prominent at Rotokare too - they were planted by early Maori as a food source. The masses of large orange fruits are produced in Autumn. Seldom growing more than 30 - 40 ft high,

The shining leaves grow up to 20 cm long and are generally elliptic in shape. Berries are 2.5-3.8 cm long and oval with a pulpy exterior and a harder internal seed.

In spite of the fact that the seed contains an alkaloid, "karakine", that is highly poisonous, the berries were a valued source of food for Maori. The tree was, in fact, planted by them especially for food supplies and was one of the very few native trees raised artificially by Maori. The poisonous principle was got rid of by prolonged cooking and washing

Alectryon excelsus

Titoki / NZ Oak

Titoki

Titoki is an attractive tree (height 4 - 18 metres) with glossy dark green leaves and a spreading canopy. The Titoki tree seeds are a hairy woody capsule that splits to reveal bright red fruit and black seed. The fruit can take up to a year to mature. These trees are attractive to bees, butterflies and birds.

Maori used to bruise the seeds and then steam them to release oil. The oil was used for an earache, for eye problems and as a lotion for a wide range of skin ailments including infant rashes, eczema, sores, sprains and wounds, rheumatism, swellings due to bites and stings.

Weinmannia racemosa

Kamahi

Kamahi

A medium-sized common tree Weinmannia racemosa Is the dominant tree on Mt Egmont/Taranaki and that's unique as virtually all New Zealand mountains have beech trees as the dominant tree, Mt Egmont/Taranaki has none. The theory is the eruptions killed all the beech. In Taranaki. Except for local gardens the closest specimens growing wild are found at Awakino or near Whangamomana.

Weinmannia racemosa sometimes begins life as an epiphyte on the trunks of tree ferns.

It has small creamy-white flowers in erect spikes. It is a spreading tree to 25m with dark green leathery leaves. It produces masses of creamy sweet scented flowers in summer.

Kamahi bark is greyish, with white blotches and relatively smooth. Kamahi bark was a rich native source of tannins, which were used to dye cloaks and mats and to preserve fishing lines. Its timber, often protected by tapu, was durable and "lucky" for fishing rods.

Laurelia novaezelandiae

Pukatea

Pukatea

Can grow to a height of 40 m and the only New Zealand native tree developing large plank-buttresses. These thin triangular flanges extend up the trunk and along the roots support the tree's growth in swamp or shallow-soil areas.

It also has a specialised respiratory root structure called pneumatophores (roots above the ground) in certain waterlogged ground or mud. The tree's trunk is clean and straight and can obtain diameter >2m.

The leaves are elliptic, opposite and are thick leathery with coarse blunt serrations. They are bright green with serrated leaf margins, a glossy top surface and pale underneath (4-8cm x 2.5-5cm). The young leaves are a light green and the adult leaves are darker. It has small (6mm) green flowers on flower stalks up to 3cm long during October to November. The genus Laurelia is unusual, with both sexes separate on the same tree, and occasionally together on the same flower.

After flowering, it develops urn-shaped seed cases up to 2.5cm long which split and release hair-covered seeds which are dispersed by the wind.

In the past, the light but tough timber of Laurelia novae-zelandiae has been used for boat building. An extract from the bark containing the alkaloid pukateine is used in traditional Maori herbal medicine as an analgesic.

Knightia excelsa

Rewarewa / NZ Honeysuckle

Rewarewa

A broadleaf forest tree which grows to heights of up to 28 meters with trunks up to 1 meter in diameter. It is an attractive tree distinguished from a distance by its ascending branches. It

It has finely textured bark and the leaves of juvenile plants are linear-lanceolate (broad, but tapering to a point at both ends, like the blade of a lance), toothed, up to 30cm. long. Those on older saplings and trees are 15 cm. long, narrow-oblong and coarsely toothed. It has in October November deep red flowers on 10cm long flower branches with dense flower clusters, the individual flowers look like coiled spirals. It is a preferred food of possums The fruit is woody and pod-like (up to 4cm long) splitting into two halves to release wind dispersed winged seeds. Its reddish-brown wood is dense and strong but not at all durable.

Adaptations

- Canopy

Canopy tree & plant adaptations

Melicytus ramiflorus

Mahoe

Mahoe

Mahoe is a small tree of the family Violaceae endemic to New Zealand. It grows up to 10 metres high with a trunk up to 60 cm in diameter, it has smooth, whitish bark and brittle twigs.

The dark-green "alternate" leaves are 5-15 cm long and 3-5 cm wide and their edges are finely serrated .

The plants are dioecious and the small flowers are yellowish in colouration, between 3 and 4 mm in diameter and occur in fascicles, growing straight out from naked twigs- these flowers have a strong, pleasant fragrance. The berries are a striking violet colour when ripe and are more or less spherical with a diameter of between 3 and 4 mm. Flowering occurs in late spring and on into summer while the berries appear later on in summer and also in autumn. The berries of this small tree are eaten by a number of native birds, including Kereru, Tui and geckos of the genus Naultinus. The Melicytus ramiflorus is insect pollinated with midges, gnats, hoverflies, butterflies, bees and ants. Mahoe is ubiquitous throughout lower altitude New Zealand forests and is frequently seen in areas of regenerating forest.

Pate

Schefflera digitata

Pate/Seven Finger

It is a small, spreading tree up to 8 m high with stout branches.

It occurs in lowland to lower montane forests. It prefers damp, shady parts of the forest and is common along stream banks and on shady forest roadsides. It is the only New Zealand representative of the genus Schefflera which has 200 species of shrubs and small trees in the tropics and subtropics.

The leaves may have from three to nine leaflets. The leaflets are thin and soft to the touch with sharply serrated margins.

The late summer inflorescences are large, multi-branched panicles up to 35 cm across, with umbels of small greenish flowers arising at irregular intervals along its length. Each umbel contains up to ten flowers each about 7 mm in diameter. The ripe violet to black fruits are fleshy, round, and grooved when dry. They are about 3.5 mm in diameter and take two or three months to ripen. These are an important food source for many of the native birds.

Kotukutuku

Fuchsia excorticata

Tree fuchsia/Kotukutuku/New Zealand Fuchsia

Considered to be the world’s largest fuchsia. It is one of New Zealand’s few truly deciduous trees, losing its leaves in winter in all but the warmest areas.

Attractive, small flowers appear between August and December. They change from greenish-yellow to purple-red.These flowers are rich in nectar and are visited by honey-eating birds, especially tūī, bellbirds and silver eyes. The dark purple berries, known as kōnini by Māori, are edible and taste like tamarillos. The berry (konini) is sweet and juicy and it was also used by European settlers to make jam and puddings. Tui and wood pigeon feed on the berries which have lots of very tiny seeds. Fruit is edible and tastes like a very mild grape. Maori called the fruit konini and the name is sometimes given to the tree.

Fuchsia excorticata are easily recognised in their native environment by the characteristic appearance of their bark, which peels spontaneously, hanging in red papery strips to show a pale bark underneath.

Aristotelia serrata Wineberry/Makomako

Mako

mako

It can be classified as a shrub or small tree and can grow to 10m.

Wineberry is a dioecious tree or shrub with male and female individuals; male and female flowers arise on separate plants, so both sexes are required for the production of red-black berries. Its leaves are broad, rose-coloured leaves and grow 5-12 cm long with a long petiole. It flowers September to December producing small rose coloured flowers 4mm wide. It develops edible berries which dark red to black and 5mm wide containing 8 seeds. These berries ripen in January to February and are dispersed by birds.

The bark of branchlets green or red in colour, darkening with age. Leaves, flowers and buds are very palatable to possums.

Maori children used to feast on the berries, which were also squeezed and strained to make a sweet drink.

European settlers made jam and jellies and also produced a very good wine from the berries Infusions from the bark and leaves were used to treat a burn, boils, sore eyes and rheumatic pains.

Rhopalostylis sapida

Nikau Palm

Nikau

The Nikau is the only palm species native to mainland New Zealand and it is the world's most southerly growing palm. The Nikau grows up to 15 m tall, with a stout green trunk which bears grey-green leaf scars. The trunk is topped by a smooth bulging crown shaft up to 1m long. The fronds are up to 3m long, and the closely-set, sometimes overlapping leaflets are up to 1 m long

The inflorescence is multi-branched and from 200 to 400 mm long. The tightly packed flowers are unisexual and coloured lilac to pink. Male flowers are borne in pairs, and have 6 stamens. The female flowers are solitary. The fruit is elliptic or oblong, and generally measures about 10 by 7 mm, and is red when ripe.

The Nikau produces flowers between November and April, and fruits ripen from February to November, taking almost a year to fully ripen. These are a favourite food of the Kereru, the native wood pigeon.

The leaves were used to thatch houses, to wrap food before cooking, and to weave into hats, mats, baskets, and leggings for travelling through undergrowth. The growing spikes can be taken from the tree about every eight months without killing it. From the outer portion of the trunk, Maori made storage containers and pots. The hard berries were made into necklaces or eaten when green. The immature flower is edible and can be cooked and eaten like cauliflower. The heart of the developing leaves (called rito) can also be eaten raw, but taking the shoots kills the whole tree.

Cyathea smithii/Soft Tree Fern

Dicksonia squarrosa/Wheki

Cyathea cunninghamii/Ponga

Cyathea dealbata/Silver fern

Tree Ferns

Brachyglottis repanda

Rangiora

Rangiora

Rangiora is endemic to New Zealand. It grows to a height of 5 to 7 metres and is common in scrub and forest throughout the North Island and upper South Island. A bushy shrub with large leaves, which are dull green on the upper surface. The leaves are between 5-25 X 5-20 cm broad with lobed margins. The petioles of the leaves have a characteristic groove up to 10 cm long. The undersides of the leaves are white with a soft furry underside. These leaves have been referred to as "Bushman's toilet paper. They also make a practical paper on which letters have been written. It has fragrant creamy flowers that are abundant in spring. The flowers are found on much-branched panicles with each floret being about 5mm in diameter X 12mm long.

The seed are ripe when tiny 'parachutes' are formed after flowering (Oct/Nov), these are then blown from the plant.by the wind.

Maori used the plant for a number of medicinal uses. The leaves contain a small quantity of an alkaloid poison which has some antiseptic quality and was used for wounds and old ulcerated sores to keep dust and flies away. The bark and tips of the branches on the west side of the bush were cut and the gum which exuded was chewed (but not swallowed) for foul breath. The leaves were bruised, mixed with olive oil and applied to boils as a poultice.

Hedycarya arborea

Pigeonwood

Hedycarya arborea is a common understorey tree in conifer–broadleaf forest. It grows to a maximum height of 16metres. It is common on margins of lowland and montane forests throughout the North Island and warmer parts of the South Island. This is the only species of the Hedycarya genus in New Zealand.

Hedycarya arborea has ascending branches with a trunk up to up to 50cm diameter, with smooth, dark to almost black bark.

It has thick, leathery, bright green leaves are 5-12.5cm long by 2-5 – 5 cm wide with coarse margins and distantly spaced teeth. They can be can be elliptic or ovate and have distinct veins, a shiny upper surface and dull underside.

Hedycarya arborea is dioecious (has male and female trees).

During October and November, many flowered branched racemes are produced from the leaf axils.

The fleshy sweet-smelling, hairy male flowers (8-12mm across) have a green tinge, and they are short-lived.

The female flowers are 6mm across.

During October to February berries develop in groups on radiating stalks. A first they are green and they ripen to a bright orange. The berries are oval, about 1cm long and are a favourite food of wood pigeons and of possums.

Pigeonwood

Pseudopanax crassifolius

Horoeka/Lancewood

Horoeka

It is one of the oddities in New Zealand's forest.

The adult tree grows to about 15 metres tall and supports a many-branched, rounded crown of short, leathery leaves. An important feature of the Lancewood is that it has several distinct phases throughout its life cycle (heteroblastic growing several forms or type of leaves along a shoot depending on age or shoot length.

The most obvious being the significant morphological changes from the juvenile to the adult forms. In the juvenile form, the Pseudopanax crassifolius has a slender single main stem reaching 4.5 - 6 metres in height.The juvenile leaves are long, narrow and 12 - 20mm in width deflecting downward. The leaves are primarily a very dark green colour with a purple underside. They also have a pronounced yellow-orange midrib occupying almost a third of the leaf area. Distinctive teeth are distributed along the margins of the tough and coriaceous leaves. This is contrasted with the adult form that can reach 15 meters in height and is characterised by a round, thick-leaved head on top of a straight tall trunk of up to 500mm in diameter. Grey bark and ridges spiral up the length of the trunk.

After a long juvenile period of 15 to 20 years, the apex starts to branch and the stem starts to thicken. The adult leaves can occur unifoliate, three-foliate or five-foliate. The teeth diminish and become less fierce, resulting in a serrated or smooth leaf margin.

Adaptations

- Sub-canopy

Sub-canopy

Adaptations

Lophomyrtus bullata

Ramarama

Ramarama

An endemic species of evergreen myrtle shrub which grows to a height of 8m. Its scientific name bullata is from the Latin word meaning bubble.

Lophomyrtus bullata habits the North and South Islands but is scarce in the South Island where it ranges to about North Canterbury and Greymouth. It is found in coastal and lowland forests margins and stream banks.

The branches are numerous, erect and compactly branched.

It has thick leathery, glossy, blistered leaves are broad oval-shaped dark green to yellow-green, mottled and/or spotted with red, maroon or purple-black circular blemishes (2.5-5 cm long).

White or pale pink open cup-shaped flowers 12 mm across appear November to March. The flowers of this plant are hermaphrodite (has both male and female organs). The petals are dotted with tiny warts.

Dark reddish-purple (becoming black) many-seeded berries (10mm) appear in January to June.

Edible parts of Lophomyrtus bullata are the fruit raw or cooked. They taste very much like a guava when they are fully ripe. The Maori used a decoction which was of benefit in treating bruises. Small black berries also added flavour when cooking the starchy material obtained from fern roots.

Geniostoma ligustrifolium

Hangehange/Maori privet

Hangehange

Hangehange is a bushy shrub up to 4 m in height with slender brittle branches found mainly in lowland and coastal forests from the North Island to Marlborough. The bright greens opposite shiny pointed oval leaves are 4-8 cm long and are soft and shiny.

It has tiny, greenish-white, perfumed, slightly hairy flowers in spring. The flowers are borne in groups (cymes) up to 3 cm in diameter at the base of leaves and along the branches and trunk of the bush (cauliflorous). Each flower has five, 3 mm long sepals that alternate with five petals that are joined into a 6 mm long green-to-white tube with spreading, hairy lobes. Five short stamens are around a single ovary. The black fruit develops late summer and is a 4-6 mm diameter dry capsule which splits into 2 valves. When the seed capsule opens it reveals seeds that are held within an enlarged pulpy placenta exposing only their dark tips.

Traditional use by the Maori - To impart a distinctive flavour to the meal, food was wrapped in the shiny leaves prior to steaming in the hangi. Its sap was applied to the skin and the bark was used for the itch

Rasp fern

Hairy fern

Kiokio

Ferns

Piper excelsum

Kawakawa/Pepper tree

It can be found growing from coastal areas to lowland (extending up 500 m. a.s.l. in warmer parts of the country). It is usually an important understorey species in coastal forests. The New Zealand's subspecies is a small, densely branched, aromatic, dioecious tree with large heart-shaped fleshy leaves growing up to 5 metres.

It has tiny flowers which are on upright catkin-like spikes and occur on separate male & female plants.

The fruit which is only on female trees (2 to 5 cm) long is a whole lot of little fruit clustered on a central stem, green at first but changing to orange when ripe The seed in the soft, orange spikes that are a favoured food of many birds in late summer and are dispersed by them..

The root, fruit, seeds and especially the leaves of the kawakawa plant were favourite medicinal remedies of the New Zealand Māori. In fact, the kawakawa is one of the only plants still used by the Maori people today. Externally, Kawa Kawa was used for healing cuts and wounds, as an ingredient in vapour baths, and also as an insect repellent. Internally, it was found to be effective as a blood purifier in cases of eczema, boils, cuts, wounds, rheumatism, neuralgia, ringworm, itching sore feet, and all forms of kidney and skin ailments. The leaves were chewed to alleviate a toothache. The bruised leaves drew pus from boils and skin infections. A drink made from the leaves helped stomach problems and rheumatics when rubbed on joints. The leaf, if dried and burnt is an insect repellent. The name kawakawa in Maori refers to the bitter taste of the leaves.

kawakawa is also used by the Māori for ceremonies, including removing tapu, and as a symbol of death, a garland of greenery worn by women at tangihanga.

The leaves are often covered with insect holes due to damage by Kawakawa looper moth caterpillar

Kawakawa

Elatostema rugosum

Parataniwha/Native begonia

Parataniwha

Parataniwha is a member of the nettle family. It is a herbaceous ground cover plant and is one of our very few perennials. It grows up to at 1m tall in wet shaded areas such as damp shady streamsides and gullies. It can form large colonies and is often the dominant groundcover vegetation. It has large prominently veined bronze green leaves (8-25 cm long) with purple tonings. The distinctive rough leaves give rise to the taniwha part of the common name because taniwha in Maori for shark. (After the sharks rough skin)

Parataniwha is found naturally only in the North Island.

Adaptations

- Shrub layer

Shrub

Adaptations

Hypopterygium rotulatum

Umbrella moss

Mosses

Asplenium bulbiferum

Hen and chicken fern

Blechnum Discolor

Crown fern

Ferns

Forest Floor

- Adaptations

Forest Floor

Adaptations

Abiotic

'Non-living things'

Abiotic

You will take a range of abiotic measurements while on the fieldtrip, think about why you are taking these measurements, and how they relate to the pattern you are looking for. How many measurements should you take?

Biotic

'Living things'

Biotic

Profile Diagrams

A profile diagram is a visual representation of data - in this case it aids in detecting an ecological pattern. It is particularly useful for determining forest stratification

Profile Diagrams

Kite

Diagrams

Refer to ESA Study Guide

Work through pages: 171-173

Practise example

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