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By: Devda Nair, Kripa Menon, Jeanelle Tweneboa-Kodua, Angel Pavu
1865-1890
Business and Labor
1865-1885
After the end of the Civil War, the United
States grew to be an industrial powerhouse. It
excelled in many new industries such as electrical power,
steel production, and petroleum refining, while many older ones flourished as well. Dependence on and use of railroads significantly increased, integrating the nation's most remote regions into a market economy. Industrialization served as a transformation for society as it expanded the workforce and became more diverse. Unfortunately, it wasn’t a fully advantageous change for everyone because many people
were either unemployed or were getting paid very little
for the work they did. These economic issues led
to the development of ideas such as Taylorism,
Social Darwinism, labor unions, and the
emergence of socialism.
1880-1890
1890-1901
Development of Labor Unions
Homestead Strike
In the late 1800s, labor unions became a relevant challenge for factory owners and the government to face. Due to unfair and harsh working conditions, employees began going on strikes and pressuring those in power to enact labor reforms. Although the United States economy was beginning to thrive coming out of the Civil War and exceed above other countries, the workforce was unhappy and mistreated. They were unappreciated because there were so many people that had to be employed due to the heavy flow of immigrants, so most people were not valued at factories because there always seemed to be replacements for those who were unable to work anymore. Some would quit while others were fired, but there were also injuries and deaths. In 1866, the National Labor Union was created to fight for the working conditions that the workers themselves desired rather than what factory owners and the government believed would be best for economic benefit. Two
major strikes that occurred were the Homestead Strike
and the Pullman Strike.
Pullman Strike
Homestead Strike
The chairman and chief executive of
Carnegie Steel company was a man named
Henry Clay Frick who planned to lower the wage for
employees in 1982. This caused retaliation from the Amalgamated Association of iron and Steel Workers, a labor union association, so Frick locked 3,800 laborers out, which would cause them to lose their source of income unless they agreed to his conditions. To Frick's surprise, all of the workers, including non-members of the union, went on a strike. Unfortunately for the strikers, Pinkerton National Detective Agency, an agency known for breaking up strikes and unions, was called in. With the involvement of Pinkerton, the Homestead Strike rapidly became violent from both sides, but the strike ultimately fell apart as many members and leaders were charged with crimes which led to the union’s acceptance of defeat. Carnegie Steel did face criticism from the public, but the Homestead Strike overall resulted in an end to most
of Amalgamated’s steel strikes for the next
couple decades.
Pullman Strike
George Pullman, the operator of a
company town south of Chicago, laid off a
majority of his employees along with cutting the
wages of the rest of his employees and the ones that returned
after being laid off. This occurred in 1993, but in 1994, a strike was announced by the American Railway Union. It led to the boycott of all trains that carried Pullman company cars. The significance and uniqueness of this strike was that people who were not involved with the laborers’ disputation also participated in the boycott to show support. Even with the extra support on the opposing side, Pullman was able to partner with railroad managers, so his connections led to a declared injunction against the strikers. Much like the Homestead Strike, the leaders of the strike were arrested and the strike itself was put to an end, but the Pullman Strike left a
sense of unity in the nation considering it became
well known and well-supported.
Social Darwinism
Laissez-Faire Capitalism
Social Darwinism is the theory that certain individuals are congenitally more fit to be successful in society. It justified things such as racism, conservatism, and imperialism and was promoted by a sociologist named Herbert Spencer. Social Darwinism tried to steer society away from reform and intervention. The idea is derived from the theory of “survival of the fittest” which was introduced by Charles Darwin; “survival of the fittest” was originally used to explain the evolution of people and animals through a process called natural selection. In 1880, these
biological principles were used to transform
politics and society through concepts such
as Laissez-Faire Capitalism
and Eugenics.
Eugenics
Laissez-Faire Capitalism
Laissez-Faire Capitalism allowed
businesses to pursue just their financial goals
without being concerned about restrictions from the government or taxes. Naturally, this could induce unfavorable outcomes that give manufacturers license to act irresponsibly and face no consequences. Laissez-Faire proponents contend that since the market would eliminate such undesirable individuals, extensive and expensive regulation is not necessary, but injudicious people could carry on their operations for a very long time without federal oversight to safeguard consumers. This would eventually lead to possible health issues
and overall dissatisfaction from the public.
Eugenics
Francis Galton, a British explorer
and naturalist, created the word "eugenics"
in 1883. He supported a system that would
provide the races that he and others with his political and social views thought were more suitable races or strains of blood with a better chance of triumphing over the “less suitable.” This idea promoted racism and classism as it discouraged the government to aid poor people. Eugenics and Laissez-Faire capitalism are closely related and generally hold a negative connotation, but at the
time, they were used to advocate for
imperialism.
Taylorism
Pros
Taylorism is the scientific process of making factory laborers work through a specialized repetitive manufacturing system that is closely observed by trained managers. It was first developed between the 1880s and 1890s by an American engineer named Frederick Winslow Taylor. Taylor was a foreman (someone who supervises and directs other workers) at a factory called Midvale Steel Company in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. After becoming a foreman for the company and being more observant, he recognized a lack of productivity and an increased failure of the workers to complete assigned tasks. Midvale was a high-quality steel factory, and Taylor believed that the unorganized system at the time was a liability to the reputation and standard of the company. He researched a scientific management system that enhanced the
efficiency of production and introduced it to the
manufacturing system.
Cons
Pros
Some workers were
more efficient than others before
Taylorism, and those workers received the
same pay as those who were not as efficient, so Taylor also believed his system was more equitable for the laborers because it allowed for variable pay based on a worker’s skill and efficiency. In fact, this reduced the exhaustion of certain employees and human errors due to the increased incentive. It was a division of labor based on skill which proved beneficial in terms of economic success and safety of laborers,
but in some cases these factors actually
served as disadvantages.
Cons
Although Taylorism was
more efficient for production and
labor, it dehumanized the workers and
presented them as machines that were made to do one task continuously. It ultimately gave more power to the supervisors and management of the company. Also, even though it was safer for workers to complete the tasks that they were best at, doing the same thing for long hours would lead to injuries and strain of the body. For skilled
laborers, Taylorism was motivation, but
the workers who were not as
skilled quickly became
discouraged.
Socialism
Andrew Carnegie
Some people in America's turbulent Industrial Revolution era became incredibly wealthy, while others endured abject poverty. Both supporters and detractors of the capitalist economic system sprang from this conundrum. Those who did not support the capitalist system usually favored socialism. Some argued that capitalism would be the downfall of society, while some thought it would usher in a new era of affluence. This discussion gave rise to increasingly sophisticated justifications for the advantages and disadvantages of capitalist and
socialist society throughout the Gilded Age. To
show the extremes of both ideas, this
discussion will draw on the perspectives
of two people, Andrew Carnegie and
Albert Parsons.
Albert Persons
Andrew Carnegie
In the late 1800s, Andrew Carnegie
had a steel production company, and he
made a sizable fortune from it. He contended that
the majority of money should be kept by a small group of
people because they deserve it, and it is in the interests of society as a whole. He possessed a capitalist view which was one side of the major political divide that existed during the last 19th century. Although he had his own ideas about who or what the money should be given to, Carnegie did encourage that the wealthy utilize their fortune to sponsor activities for the public good and that the process of distributing wealth willingly would end the problem of poverty and inequality. Several wealthy
men of Carnegie's era shared his beliefs that were
built off the foundation of Social Darwinism
principles.
Albert Parsons
Albert Parsons was a printer
by trade, an ardent anarchist, and a
supporter of socialism with a completely different understanding of capitalism than Andrew Carnegie. He maintained that the rich, who in his view were the only ones benefiting from free labor, were only advanced by the capacity to battle against each other in a capitalist society. Parsons preferred socialism and anarchy over capitalism because he thought that unless social classes, capitalism, and wage slavery were abolished, the common worker would be enslaved by the chains of "wage slavery." The complete and ultimate freedom of society's members, according to Parsons, would be its saving grace. He asserted that to disagree with socialist viewpoints
was to “quarrel with history; to denounce the logic of
events; to smother the aspirations
of liberty.”
1865-1890
Conquering the West
1865-1901
Following the end of the civil war, Americans
were now able to move and expand westward
for agriculture, trade, and other economic opportunities. The west became very diverse with many immigrants searching for jobs, and African Americans looking for communities and prosperity
outsideof the deep south. This rapid expansion however was detrimental to the lives of Native Americans, as the more land the U.S wanted the
more they confined the Native Americans to
reservations. All these things would
come to define America’s
westward expansion .
1865-1901
The Cattle Kingdom
The Cattle Boom
The Cattle Bust
Many ranchers in the Great
plains raised cattle, and this
expansive area stretching from the
south of the U.S in Texas all the way
to Canada came to be known as the
cattle kingdm. This region was
covered by all aspects of the
cattle industry, from its
ranches to cow towns.
The Cattle Boom
The cattle boom began
with the Texas longhorn, which
was created after the cattle that was
brought over by the Spanish mixed with American breeds. This breed was ideal, as even though they had less meat, they required less water and could survive the harsh winters. Following the civil war the demand for beef increased, and this sudden economic oppurtunity led to the cattle boom. Ranchers began to travel north to sell their herds, and since their cattle was doing well, they
expanded north throughout the great
plains which would become the
Cattle Kingdom.
The Cattle Bust
The cattle bust refers the fall
of the cattle kingdom. Starting in the 1880's ranchers began to face more and more competition on the open range, and this competition led to what was known as range wars between small and large ranchers and farmers. In contrast to the cattle boom, the cattle bust came about due to an economic depression. As people began to struggle financally, the demand for beef decreased significantly, and ultimately led to fall of the cattle kingdom.
Homestead Act
Native Americans
Settlers
Passed in 1862, the homestead act granted any
American citizen a 160-acre plot of public land. The
homesteader must pay a filing fee of $18 dollars if they
wish to file a claim, and after filing the claim the owner
must build a residence and live on the land for five years
and prove that they have never fought or borne arms
against the United States. Hundreds of thousands of people
rushed at the chance for free land, and this made the act one
of the most important pieces of legislation for American
westward expansionand growth. However even though
it wasincredibly beneficial for settlers and the
U.S, it devastated countless Native American
populations.
The Settlers
The homestead act allowed all citizens to file a claim for land. This allowed not only white males, but also women, african americans, and immigrants to be land owners.
In order for for American
settlers to move into western lands,
the government needed to move Native
Americans off of the fertile lands that they
wished to give to the settlers. The desire for westward expansion displaced many Native Americans from their homes and communites, and forced them onto small, crowded reservations. These reservations allowed
the indigenous people to maintain some
of their traditions and govern
themselves, however this system
was destroyed by the
Dawes Act of 1887.
Indigenous reservations (1890)
Dawes Act of 1887
Dawes Act of 1887
The Dawes Act of 1887,
which was proposed by Senator
Henry Dawes of Massachusetts, destroyed
the reservation system. This act legislation
allowed the president to break up reservation land
that was held by the entire tribe, and break it up into individual plots of land. Dawes proposed this with the intention of assimilating Native Americans into
American society. The Dawes Act failed for many
reasons, such as the fact that Native Americans were
often placed on baren land unsuitable for farming,
and many could afford the faming tools needed to
grow crops. This failedlegislation led to countless
tribes,communties, and traditon
falling apart and being
lost.
Mining
Role of Immigrants
Following the California Gold
Rush in 1849, gold and silver were
found in various other places
including Leadville, Colorado in 1873,
and Comstock Lode in Nevada. Many people rushed west in the hopes of
finding gold or silver to gain wealth.
This included many immigrants
who were often left to do
the dangerous work.
Role of Immigrants
The mining industry led to a new
social ladder forming. The land for
mining was owned by whites, primarily
men, and the ones who worked in the mine shafts were Mexican and Chinese Americans, and poor whites. Due to the close proximity and how easy it was to travel to the U.S, chinese immigration soared at this time with many, especially young, hoping to find wealth on the west coast. The governement however wanted
to curb this spike in immigration which led to them passing a series of laws
discriminating against Chinese
Americans
Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882
Chinese Exclusion act of 1882
Signed into law by President
Arthur on May 6, 1882, it was a law
meant to lessen chinese immigration to the United States. The act placed a 10 year ban on the immigration of chinese laborers in the country, and if a non-laborer wished to enter they had to recieve special certification from the governemnt stating they were qualified to immigrate. This was the first time in history that a federal law actively prohibitted the entry of a specfic ethnic group claiming that they were a danger to the nation. This act which was
set to expire 10 years later in 1892 would
be extended for many more years to
come.
Geary Act of 1892
Geary Act of 1892
The Geary Act was passed as an
extension to the Chinese Exclusion Act, which
upheld the act for an additional 10 years, and
required all chinese persons currently in the United
States to carry special documentation, a certificate of residence. If an immigrant was caught without this documentation they would be faced with punishments of deportation and hard labor. The chinese governemnt
would protest these discriminatory actions, and in 1882 during the trial of Yee Shun, chinese immigrants were finally able to testify in court. During the Fong Yue Ting v. United States trial in 1893, the supreme court
upheld the Geary Act and chinese immigration
would become permanently illegal a few years
later.
The "Myth" of the American West
Fredrick Jackson Turner
The "myth" of the American west, created a story in american popular culture that contained a wild frontier with a heroic white cowboy. These stories created an image about the west that was unrealistic to what its really like, and these stories are what led many to move west.
The American Cowboy
Fredrick Jackson Turner
Turners first made the
term, frontier, relevant in 1893
when he used it in his essay and
later in his Frontier Thesis. In his thesis
he describes the frontier as “the meeting point between savagery and civilization,” and that the frontier was the furthest point from civilization. Turner's thesis, whoch although did not create the myth of the frontier, it played a major role in the general acceptance and gave a
voiceto the idea.
The American Cowboy
Originating from Spain,
the cowboy made its way over to the
U.S where they working on ranches to
graze and take care of herds. Real cowboys
were generally formerly enslaved young men,
or native americans who had lost their homes,
and these men worked long days in secluded
areas of the frontier. However, through novels
and stories, these men were made to be heroic
white men who embodied personal freedom
and what a man should be, as they
rode on horse back through
the frontier.
1876-1886
Life in Industrialized America
1886-1901
The Gilded Age led to new technological
inventions and a population boom throughout the
United States. There was a great switch from rural to an urban society which changed the American people into a more consumerist society. Racial tensions often arose as immigrants from all over the world came to America looking for jobs since it was labeled as the “land of economic opportunity.” This time period marked a shift from the “norms” to a more liberal way of thinking. Women were slowly gaining more voice in daily life and religion started stepping away from Calvinist principles. This
time period also fostered the growth of corrupt
politicians and their subordinates who were
known as “political machines.”
1865-1901
Telephone
Industrialization and Technological Innovation
Lightbulb
The second industrial revolution led to the
development of new technological innovations which
lead to mass production of materials and weapons. While the first industrial revolution focused on textile manufacturing and steam power, the second industrial revolution centered on advances in steel production, the automobile, and electricity. These advancements connected more people together
than ever before, leading to a further
interconnected society.
Automobile
The Telephone
In 1876, Alexander Graham Bell was awarded
the patent for the telephone, which transmits voice over long distances. The telephone was created as a way to improve the already existing telegraph. Post offices, railroad stations, political centers (ministries), stock exchanges, a very small number of nationally distributed newspapers, wealthy corporations, and affluent individuals were the principal users of the telephone. Instead of waiting for weeks to hear important news, the
telephone made it possible to be transmitted in seconds.
This is an important development since telephones
could be used as an efficient mode of
communication in war.
The Lightbulb
In 1879, Thomas Edison patented
the carbon-filament incandescent lightbulb.
The invention of the lightbulb allowed factories to quickly invest in electrical lighting technologies so that they could increase the number of hours of work each day. This led to increased efficiency as well as the overworking of the factory workers. The lightbulb also created an influx of job openings, and it also promoted the modern life of the urban cities.
There is a direct correlation between the
lightbulb and the increase of the
population of those in
urban cities.
The Automobile
Carl Benz applied for the patent of a
“vehicle powered by a gas engine” on January 29th, 1886. The first automobile was created in July 1886, which was a 3 wheeled Benz Patent motor car. The creation of the automobile lead to an increase in improvements of public roads and transportation. It also created more jobs since parts needed to be manufactured individually. Henry Ford created the assembly line which made mass-producing each individual part more efficient and cost
effective. This made automobiles
affordable for the average
American.
Immigration
Origins
During the Gilded Age, there was
an increase in immigrants coming to America because they saw it as the land of opportunity. Many left their home countries due to crop failure, famine, land and job shortages, rising taxes, and political disputes. Between 1870 and 1900, 12 million immigrants arrived in the United States. With a rising population came conflicts due
to job competition and racial
discrimination.
Conflicts
Origins
Immigrants came from all over
the world, with Europeans at 90%, Canadians
at 6.7% and the Chinese at 1.7%. Europeans (principal countries were England, Ireland, and Germany) landed on the East Coast and 70% of immigrants total landed in New York City which got the name “The Golden Door.” The increasing number of people entering forced the government to open a new immigrant processing center on Ellis Island in the New York Harbor. Those from Asia entered through the west coast; they heard what was going on with the Gold Rush and wanted to capitalize
on the opportunity. While Immigrants often settled near the coastal city ports, several moved inland
looking for farming jobs.
Conflicts
Since the population was
increasing, conflicts arose due to greater competition for jobs. Racial hatred, specifically against the Chinese, became a problem because Europeans and Americans thought that they were “stealing” their jobs. Anti-Chinese riots occurred which called for the exclusion of Chinese immigrants from the United States. This led to Congress passing the Chinese Exclusion
Act in 1882. This act banned the
immigration of Chinese to
the US for 10 years.
Gender
Gender, Religion, and Culture in the Gilded Age
Religion
The Gilded Age was an era of challenging traditional norms. When examining the areas of gender, religion, and culture, the United States started to become more progressive. Women rallied for more representation; specifically in the government in terms of voting rights. New churches rose to power which threatened the preexisting religious traditions and institutions. The American culture dramatically changed as society transformed from rural/agrarian
to an urban/industrial one.
Culture
Gender
Even though men still played the more “dominant” role in society, women all over the country continued to fight for equal rights. Female activism was rising as women began to hold conventions and protests in order to have their voices heard. Some of the most notable leaders of the women's suffrage movement were Susan B Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton. In 1869, they created the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) which worked to change federal law; the most important one
being that women could vote.
Religion
Many rejected the Calvinist principles of original sin and predestination and moved towards more liberal beliefs which were supported by the at the time. There was a greater importance placed on God’s love rather than human sinfulness. Many Americans were also reconsidering their faith due to factors such as Charles Darwin’s theory of social Darwinism and the civil war. Darwinism
gave a theory of how natural selection
works and the civil war convinced
many that God would not save them
from tragedy and violence.
Culture
Since there was a great increase in the
population of the United States and more urban cities developed, new ways to entertain mass populations emerged. Movie theatres and art museums were built as a way to keep people happy and entertained. The creation of saloons, which were old time bars in the west, allowed for a place of gathering for those in the working class. Those in the upper/wealthy classes started to use their wealth to live in the most lavish way possible. Since mass production was made possible in the Gilded Age, consumerism was a way of life for those who were wealthy. Many people bought things that were not useful but would signify a greater status for their family.
Rise in Political Machines
Examples
Political machines were institutions
in urban cities which controlled many aspects of the community, such as policies, voting trends, and economics. There was a single powerful boss who had a “political machine” or a group of people below who would try to gain votersupport. While political machines and the bosses who
ran them were often corrupt, they did a lot to
help struggling immigrants in their
communities.
Positives
Examples of political machines and negative outcomes
Tammany Hall is one of the most well-known
examples of the political machine. Tammany Hall was a New York City political organization which controlled the city and its politics which ultimately led to immigrants (specifically the Irish) rise in power. William Tweed was the “boss” of Tammany Hall and was one of the most corrupt politicians. He offered jobs in local congress to those who were loyal to him, rather than those with actual merit. He rigged multiple elections for the Democratic Party by paying sheriffs to allow those in his circle to vote more than once. He also resulted to using violence when people did not vote his way by sending
thugs or crooked cops which caused fear in those
in the city.
Positive Outcomes
Since political machines offered
jobs/services in exchange for a vote, their main customers were immigrants. Immigrants who had just landed in New York often had no jobs and no homes to live in. However, Tammany Hall and Boss Tweed made sure that the immigrants had jobs, a place to live, food to eat, and medical care. Boss Tweed donated millions to places that would support immigrants, such as their local churches, schools, orphanages, charities, and hospitals. Immigrants would happily vote for the Democrats who
ran the city since they did so much
for them.
American Imperialism
1898
1901-1907
Between 1865 and 1901, the
United States significantly expanded as an imperialist state. Many of the events that contributed to the U.S.'s imperialist expansion during this period still have an impact on it now in terms of things like international relations and relationships with foreign
leaders.
1903-1913
Spanish Amercian War: April 21, 1898 – December 10, 1898
Yellow Journalism
Treaty of Paris
The Spanish-American War,
which broke out between the United
States and Spain in 1898, led to the end of Spanish colonial power in the Americas and the U.S. gaining control of territory in the western Pacific and South America. Cuba was the starting point of the conflict as it fought for independence from Spain in February 1895. The brutality of the Spaniards led to a revolt against them, which was sparked by
yellow journalism in the US.
Yellow Journalism
Yellow journalism was a type
of newspaper reporting that focused on sensationalism rather than facts. During its heyday in the late nineteenth century, it was one of many factors that pushed the United States and Spain into war in Cuba and the Philippines, leading to the United States' acquisition of overseas territory. William Randolph
Hearst is well-known for using his
newspapers to advocate for American involvement in the war.
Treaty of Paris
On December 10, 1898, the Treaty of Paris was signed, officially ending the Spanish-American War. Spain renounced all claims to Cuba, ceded Guam and Puerto Rico to the US, and transferred sovereignty over the Philippines to the US in exchange for $20 million.
Theodore Roosevelt's Foreign Policy
Roosevelt Corollary
Russo-Japanese War
America was now an overseas empire,
and Roosevelt believed that the United States needed to wield the kind of power in world affairs that European empires did. He believed that US interests were global interests, and that it was actually beneficial for "civilized" nations, including the US, to intervene in the affairs of other countries. Roosevelt was also concerned that if the United States did not play a larger role in world affairs, it would lose its status as a world power. Roosevelt ensured that the United States played a larger role in international diplomacy while also reminding other
countries that it was building
a large navy.
Gentleman's Agreement
Roosevelt Corollary:
1905
Russo-Japenese War 1904-1905
Roosevelt was awarded the Noble Peace Prize for his role in bringing the Russo-Japanese War to an end. He negotiated a peace treaty, Treaty of Portsmouth, that brought the war to an end. His negotiation marked a significant shift in the presidency of the United States, as previous presidents had not done so. Roosevelt believed that America's interests were global, and that events in Japan would have a real impact on American interests.
It signaled a new role the US in international policy
Gentleman's Agreement of 1907
During his presidency, Roosevelt signed
legislation that further restricted who could immigrate to the United States. The immigration policy for which Roosevelt gained the most notoriety, though, was an informal diplomatic agreement meant to reduce tensions between nations. The Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907-08 was an informal agreement reached between the United States and Japan to alleviate growing tensions between the two countries, particularly over immigration. It requested that US President Theodore Roosevelt order San Francisco to repeal its Japanese-American school segregation order in exchange for Japan agreeing to deny emigration passports to Japanese laborers while still
allowing wives, children, and parents of
current immigrants to enter the US.
Panama Canal
John Stevens
On February 23, 1904, the United States
Senate ratifies a treaty with the newly established Republic of Panama, giving the United States control over the Panama Canal Zone.The construction of the Panama Canal was the most spectacular of Roosevelt's foreign policy initiatives. Roosevelt was a driving force behind the construction of the Panama Canal, a waterway that allows ships to travel between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans without having to circumnavigate South America. The United States officially began construction on the canal in 1904 and continued until 1914, five
years after Roosevelt left office.
The Rise of Diseases
John Stevens
As the Panama Canal's chief engineer
from late 1905 to early 1907, John Frank Stevens, an American civil engineer and railroad executive, laid the groundwork for the project's successful completion. Stevens treated the task as if it were a sizable railroad project requiring the timely transportation of large quantities of cargo—in this case, earth—in large quantities. His organizational and planning abilities were crucial in getting the project moving. Stevens took several measures to make the Canal Zone more livable for American workers. He increased the availability of food and began a sizable construction project for worker housing. Most significantly, he played a key role in persuading President Theodore Roosevelt that a high-level canal that
combined locks and a dammed lake
was feasible.
The Rise of Diseases
The Panama Canal construction site was plagued by the deadly epidemic diseases yellow fever and malaria. During the French effort to build the Canal, over 22,000 workers died, many of them from malaria and yellow fever. Yellow fever symptoms were frightening: fever, headaches, back pain, extreme thirst, and black vomit from internal bleeding. When the United States took over construction of the Canal in 1904, Theodore Roosevelt appointed Colonel William Gorgas as Chief Sanitary Engineer. Gorgas had successfully eradicated yellow fever from Cuba in 1901 after discovering that the disease was transmitted by the mosquito Aedes aegypti.