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The Gilded Age Timeline

1865-1901

By: Devda Nair, Kripa Menon, Jeanelle Tweneboa-Kodua, Angel Pavu

1865-1890

Business and Labor

1865-1885

Theme 1

After the end of the Civil War, the United

States grew to be an industrial powerhouse. It

excelled in many new industries such as electrical power,

steel production, and petroleum refining, while many older ones flourished as well. Dependence on and use of railroads significantly increased, integrating the nation's most remote regions into a market economy. Industrialization served as a transformation for society as it expanded the workforce and became more diverse. Unfortunately, it wasn’t a fully advantageous change for everyone because many people

were either unemployed or were getting paid very little

for the work they did. These economic issues led

to the development of ideas such as Taylorism,

Social Darwinism, labor unions, and the

emergence of socialism.

1880-1890

1890-1901

Development of Labor Unions

Homestead Strike

In the late 1800s, labor unions became a relevant challenge for factory owners and the government to face. Due to unfair and harsh working conditions, employees began going on strikes and pressuring those in power to enact labor reforms. Although the United States economy was beginning to thrive coming out of the Civil War and exceed above other countries, the workforce was unhappy and mistreated. They were unappreciated because there were so many people that had to be employed due to the heavy flow of immigrants, so most people were not valued at factories because there always seemed to be replacements for those who were unable to work anymore. Some would quit while others were fired, but there were also injuries and deaths. In 1866, the National Labor Union was created to fight for the working conditions that the workers themselves desired rather than what factory owners and the government believed would be best for economic benefit. Two

major strikes that occurred were the Homestead Strike

and the Pullman Strike.

Pullman Strike

Homestead Strike

The chairman and chief executive of

Carnegie Steel company was a man named

Henry Clay Frick who planned to lower the wage for

employees in 1982. This caused retaliation from the Amalgamated Association of iron and Steel Workers, a labor union association, so Frick locked 3,800 laborers out, which would cause them to lose their source of income unless they agreed to his conditions. To Frick's surprise, all of the workers, including non-members of the union, went on a strike. Unfortunately for the strikers, Pinkerton National Detective Agency, an agency known for breaking up strikes and unions, was called in. With the involvement of Pinkerton, the Homestead Strike rapidly became violent from both sides, but the strike ultimately fell apart as many members and leaders were charged with crimes which led to the union’s acceptance of defeat. Carnegie Steel did face criticism from the public, but the Homestead Strike overall resulted in an end to most

of Amalgamated’s steel strikes for the next

couple decades.

Pullman Strike

George Pullman, the operator of a

company town south of Chicago, laid off a

majority of his employees along with cutting the

wages of the rest of his employees and the ones that returned

after being laid off. This occurred in 1993, but in 1994, a strike was announced by the American Railway Union. It led to the boycott of all trains that carried Pullman company cars. The significance and uniqueness of this strike was that people who were not involved with the laborers’ disputation also participated in the boycott to show support. Even with the extra support on the opposing side, Pullman was able to partner with railroad managers, so his connections led to a declared injunction against the strikers. Much like the Homestead Strike, the leaders of the strike were arrested and the strike itself was put to an end, but the Pullman Strike left a

sense of unity in the nation considering it became

well known and well-supported.

Social Darwinism

Laissez-Faire Capitalism

Social Darwinism is the theory that certain individuals are congenitally more fit to be successful in society. It justified things such as racism, conservatism, and imperialism and was promoted by a sociologist named Herbert Spencer. Social Darwinism tried to steer society away from reform and intervention. The idea is derived from the theory of “survival of the fittest” which was introduced by Charles Darwin; “survival of the fittest” was originally used to explain the evolution of people and animals through a process called natural selection. In 1880, these

biological principles were used to transform

politics and society through concepts such

as Laissez-Faire Capitalism

and Eugenics.

Eugenics

Laissez-Faire Capitalism

Laissez-Faire Capitalism allowed

businesses to pursue just their financial goals

without being concerned about restrictions from the government or taxes. Naturally, this could induce unfavorable outcomes that give manufacturers license to act irresponsibly and face no consequences. Laissez-Faire proponents contend that since the market would eliminate such undesirable individuals, extensive and expensive regulation is not necessary, but injudicious people could carry on their operations for a very long time without federal oversight to safeguard consumers. This would eventually lead to possible health issues

and overall dissatisfaction from the public.

Eugenics

Francis Galton, a British explorer

and naturalist, created the word "eugenics"

in 1883. He supported a system that would

provide the races that he and others with his political and social views thought were more suitable races or strains of blood with a better chance of triumphing over the “less suitable.” This idea promoted racism and classism as it discouraged the government to aid poor people. Eugenics and Laissez-Faire capitalism are closely related and generally hold a negative connotation, but at the

time, they were used to advocate for

imperialism.

Taylorism

Pros

Taylorism is the scientific process of making factory laborers work through a specialized repetitive manufacturing system that is closely observed by trained managers. It was first developed between the 1880s and 1890s by an American engineer named Frederick Winslow Taylor. Taylor was a foreman (someone who supervises and directs other workers) at a factory called Midvale Steel Company in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. After becoming a foreman for the company and being more observant, he recognized a lack of productivity and an increased failure of the workers to complete assigned tasks. Midvale was a high-quality steel factory, and Taylor believed that the unorganized system at the time was a liability to the reputation and standard of the company. He researched a scientific management system that enhanced the

efficiency of production and introduced it to the

manufacturing system.

Cons

Pros

Some workers were

more efficient than others before

Taylorism, and those workers received the

same pay as those who were not as efficient, so Taylor also believed his system was more equitable for the laborers because it allowed for variable pay based on a worker’s skill and efficiency. In fact, this reduced the exhaustion of certain employees and human errors due to the increased incentive. It was a division of labor based on skill which proved beneficial in terms of economic success and safety of laborers,

but in some cases these factors actually

served as disadvantages.

Cons

Although Taylorism was

more efficient for production and

labor, it dehumanized the workers and

presented them as machines that were made to do one task continuously. It ultimately gave more power to the supervisors and management of the company. Also, even though it was safer for workers to complete the tasks that they were best at, doing the same thing for long hours would lead to injuries and strain of the body. For skilled

laborers, Taylorism was motivation, but

the workers who were not as

skilled quickly became

discouraged.

Socialism

Andrew Carnegie

Some people in America's turbulent Industrial Revolution era became incredibly wealthy, while others endured abject poverty. Both supporters and detractors of the capitalist economic system sprang from this conundrum. Those who did not support the capitalist system usually favored socialism. Some argued that capitalism would be the downfall of society, while some thought it would usher in a new era of affluence. This discussion gave rise to increasingly sophisticated justifications for the advantages and disadvantages of capitalist and

socialist society throughout the Gilded Age. To

show the extremes of both ideas, this

discussion will draw on the perspectives

of two people, Andrew Carnegie and

Albert Parsons.

Albert Persons

Andrew Carnegie

In the late 1800s, Andrew Carnegie

had a steel production company, and he

made a sizable fortune from it. He contended that

the majority of money should be kept by a small group of

people because they deserve it, and it is in the interests of society as a whole. He possessed a capitalist view which was one side of the major political divide that existed during the last 19th century. Although he had his own ideas about who or what the money should be given to, Carnegie did encourage that the wealthy utilize their fortune to sponsor activities for the public good and that the process of distributing wealth willingly would end the problem of poverty and inequality. Several wealthy

men of Carnegie's era shared his beliefs that were

built off the foundation of Social Darwinism

principles.

Albert Parsons

Albert Parsons was a printer

by trade, an ardent anarchist, and a

supporter of socialism with a completely different understanding of capitalism than Andrew Carnegie. He maintained that the rich, who in his view were the only ones benefiting from free labor, were only advanced by the capacity to battle against each other in a capitalist society. Parsons preferred socialism and anarchy over capitalism because he thought that unless social classes, capitalism, and wage slavery were abolished, the common worker would be enslaved by the chains of "wage slavery." The complete and ultimate freedom of society's members, according to Parsons, would be its saving grace. He asserted that to disagree with socialist viewpoints

was to “quarrel with history; to denounce the logic of

events; to smother the aspirations

of liberty.”

1865-1890

Conquering the West

1865-1901

Theme 2

Following the end of the civil war, Americans

were now able to move and expand westward

for agriculture, trade, and other economic opportunities. The west became very diverse with many immigrants searching for jobs, and African Americans looking for communities and prosperity

outsideof the deep south. This rapid expansion however was detrimental to the lives of Native Americans, as the more land the U.S wanted the

more they confined the Native Americans to

reservations. All these things would

come to define America’s

westward expansion .

1865-1901

The Cattle Kingdom

The Cattle Boom

The Cattle Bust

Many ranchers in the Great

plains raised cattle, and this

expansive area stretching from the

south of the U.S in Texas all the way

to Canada came to be known as the

cattle kingdm. This region was

covered by all aspects of the

cattle industry, from its

ranches to cow towns.

The Cattle Boom

The cattle boom began

with the Texas longhorn, which

was created after the cattle that was

brought over by the Spanish mixed with American breeds. This breed was ideal, as even though they had less meat, they required less water and could survive the harsh winters. Following the civil war the demand for beef increased, and this sudden economic oppurtunity led to the cattle boom. Ranchers began to travel north to sell their herds, and since their cattle was doing well, they

expanded north throughout the great

plains which would become the

Cattle Kingdom.

The Cattle Bust

The cattle bust refers the fall

of the cattle kingdom. Starting in the 1880's ranchers began to face more and more competition on the open range, and this competition led to what was known as range wars between small and large ranchers and farmers. In contrast to the cattle boom, the cattle bust came about due to an economic depression. As people began to struggle financally, the demand for beef decreased significantly, and ultimately led to fall of the cattle kingdom.

Homestead Act

Native Americans

Settlers

Passed in 1862, the homestead act granted any

American citizen a 160-acre plot of public land. The

homesteader must pay a filing fee of $18 dollars if they

wish to file a claim, and after filing the claim the owner

must build a residence and live on the land for five years

and prove that they have never fought or borne arms

against the United States. Hundreds of thousands of people

rushed at the chance for free land, and this made the act one

of the most important pieces of legislation for American

westward expansionand growth. However even though

it wasincredibly beneficial for settlers and the

U.S, it devastated countless Native American

populations.

The Settlers

The homestead act allowed all citizens to file a claim for land. This allowed not only white males, but also women, african americans, and immigrants to be land owners.

In order for for American

settlers to move into western lands,

the government needed to move Native

Americans off of the fertile lands that they

wished to give to the settlers. The desire for westward expansion displaced many Native Americans from their homes and communites, and forced them onto small, crowded reservations. These reservations allowed

the indigenous people to maintain some

of their traditions and govern

themselves, however this system

was destroyed by the

Dawes Act of 1887.

Indigenous reservations (1890)

Dawes Act of 1887

Dawes Act of 1887

The Dawes Act of 1887,

which was proposed by Senator

Henry Dawes of Massachusetts, destroyed

the reservation system. This act legislation

allowed the president to break up reservation land

that was held by the entire tribe, and break it up into individual plots of land. Dawes proposed this with the intention of assimilating Native Americans into

American society. The Dawes Act failed for many

reasons, such as the fact that Native Americans were

often placed on baren land unsuitable for farming,

and many could afford the faming tools needed to

grow crops. This failedlegislation led to countless

tribes,communties, and traditon

falling apart and being

lost.

Mining

Role of Immigrants

Following the California Gold

Rush in 1849, gold and silver were

found in various other places

including Leadville, Colorado in 1873,

and Comstock Lode in Nevada. Many people rushed west in the hopes of

finding gold or silver to gain wealth.

This included many immigrants

who were often left to do

the dangerous work.

Role of Immigrants

The mining industry led to a new

social ladder forming. The land for

mining was owned by whites, primarily

men, and the ones who worked in the mine shafts were Mexican and Chinese Americans, and poor whites. Due to the close proximity and how easy it was to travel to the U.S, chinese immigration soared at this time with many, especially young, hoping to find wealth on the west coast. The governement however wanted

to curb this spike in immigration which led to them passing a series of laws

discriminating against Chinese

Americans

Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882

Chinese Exclusion act of 1882

Signed into law by President

Arthur on May 6, 1882, it was a law

meant to lessen chinese immigration to the United States. The act placed a 10 year ban on the immigration of chinese laborers in the country, and if a non-laborer wished to enter they had to recieve special certification from the governemnt stating they were qualified to immigrate. This was the first time in history that a federal law actively prohibitted the entry of a specfic ethnic group claiming that they were a danger to the nation. This act which was

set to expire 10 years later in 1892 would

be extended for many more years to

come.

Geary Act of 1892

Geary Act of 1892

The Geary Act was passed as an

extension to the Chinese Exclusion Act, which

upheld the act for an additional 10 years, and

required all chinese persons currently in the United

States to carry special documentation, a certificate of residence. If an immigrant was caught without this documentation they would be faced with punishments of deportation and hard labor. The chinese governemnt

would protest these discriminatory actions, and in 1882 during the trial of Yee Shun, chinese immigrants were finally able to testify in court. During the Fong Yue Ting v. United States trial in 1893, the supreme court

upheld the Geary Act and chinese immigration

would become permanently illegal a few years

later.

The "Myth" of the American West

Fredrick Jackson Turner

The "myth" of the American west, created a story in american popular culture that contained a wild frontier with a heroic white cowboy. These stories created an image about the west that was unrealistic to what its really like, and these stories are what led many to move west.

The American Cowboy

Fredrick Jackson Turner

Turners first made the

term, frontier, relevant in 1893

when he used it in his essay and

later in his Frontier Thesis. In his thesis

he describes the frontier as “the meeting point between savagery and civilization,” and that the frontier was the furthest point from civilization. Turner's thesis, whoch although did not create the myth of the frontier, it played a major role in the general acceptance and gave a

voiceto the idea.

The American Cowboy

Originating from Spain,

the cowboy made its way over to the

U.S where they working on ranches to

graze and take care of herds. Real cowboys

were generally formerly enslaved young men,

or native americans who had lost their homes,

and these men worked long days in secluded

areas of the frontier. However, through novels

and stories, these men were made to be heroic

white men who embodied personal freedom

and what a man should be, as they

rode on horse back through

the frontier.

1876-1886

Life in Industrialized America

1886-1901

Theme 3

The Gilded Age led to new technological

inventions and a population boom throughout the

United States. There was a great switch from rural to an urban society which changed the American people into a more consumerist society. Racial tensions often arose as immigrants from all over the world came to America looking for jobs since it was labeled as the “land of economic opportunity.” This time period marked a shift from the “norms” to a more liberal way of thinking. Women were slowly gaining more voice in daily life and religion started stepping away from Calvinist principles. This

time period also fostered the growth of corrupt

politicians and their subordinates who were

known as “political machines.”

1865-1901

Telephone

Industrialization and Technological Innovation

Lightbulb

The second industrial revolution led to the

development of new technological innovations which

lead to mass production of materials and weapons. While the first industrial revolution focused on textile manufacturing and steam power, the second industrial revolution centered on advances in steel production, the automobile, and electricity. These advancements connected more people together

than ever before, leading to a further

interconnected society.

Automobile

The Telephone

In 1876, Alexander Graham Bell was awarded

the patent for the telephone, which transmits voice over long distances. The telephone was created as a way to improve the already existing telegraph. Post offices, railroad stations, political centers (ministries), stock exchanges, a very small number of nationally distributed newspapers, wealthy corporations, and affluent individuals were the principal users of the telephone. Instead of waiting for weeks to hear important news, the

telephone made it possible to be transmitted in seconds.

This is an important development since telephones

could be used as an efficient mode of

communication in war.

The Lightbulb

In 1879, Thomas Edison patented

the carbon-filament incandescent lightbulb.

The invention of the lightbulb allowed factories to quickly invest in electrical lighting technologies so that they could increase the number of hours of work each day. This led to increased efficiency as well as the overworking of the factory workers. The lightbulb also created an influx of job openings, and it also promoted the modern life of the urban cities.

There is a direct correlation between the

lightbulb and the increase of the

population of those in

urban cities.

The Automobile

Carl Benz applied for the patent of a

“vehicle powered by a gas engine” on January 29th, 1886. The first automobile was created in July 1886, which was a 3 wheeled Benz Patent motor car. The creation of the automobile lead to an increase in improvements of public roads and transportation. It also created more jobs since parts needed to be manufactured individually. Henry Ford created the assembly line which made mass-producing each individual part more efficient and cost

effective. This made automobiles

affordable for the average

American.

Immigration

Origins

During the Gilded Age, there was

an increase in immigrants coming to America because they saw it as the land of opportunity. Many left their home countries due to crop failure, famine, land and job shortages, rising taxes, and political disputes. Between 1870 and 1900, 12 million immigrants arrived in the United States. With a rising population came conflicts due

to job competition and racial

discrimination.

Conflicts

Origins

Immigrants came from all over

the world, with Europeans at 90%, Canadians

at 6.7% and the Chinese at 1.7%. Europeans (principal countries were England, Ireland, and Germany) landed on the East Coast and 70% of immigrants total landed in New York City which got the name “The Golden Door.” The increasing number of people entering forced the government to open a new immigrant processing center on Ellis Island in the New York Harbor. Those from Asia entered through the west coast; they heard what was going on with the Gold Rush and wanted to capitalize

on the opportunity. While Immigrants often settled near the coastal city ports, several moved inland

looking for farming jobs.

Conflicts

Since the population was

increasing, conflicts arose due to greater competition for jobs. Racial hatred, specifically against the Chinese, became a problem because Europeans and Americans thought that they were “stealing” their jobs. Anti-Chinese riots occurred which called for the exclusion of Chinese immigrants from the United States. This led to Congress passing the Chinese Exclusion

Act in 1882. This act banned the

immigration of Chinese to

the US for 10 years.

Gender

Gender, Religion, and Culture in the Gilded Age

Religion

The Gilded Age was an era of challenging traditional norms. When examining the areas of gender, religion, and culture, the United States started to become more progressive. Women rallied for more representation; specifically in the government in terms of voting rights. New churches rose to power which threatened the preexisting religious traditions and institutions. The American culture dramatically changed as society transformed from rural/agrarian

to an urban/industrial one.

Culture

Gender

Even though men still played the more “dominant” role in society, women all over the country continued to fight for equal rights. Female activism was rising as women began to hold conventions and protests in order to have their voices heard. Some of the most notable leaders of the women's suffrage movement were Susan B Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton. In 1869, they created the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) which worked to change federal law; the most important one

being that women could vote.

Religion

Many rejected the Calvinist principles of original sin and predestination and moved towards more liberal beliefs which were supported by the at the time. There was a greater importance placed on God’s love rather than human sinfulness. Many Americans were also reconsidering their faith due to factors such as Charles Darwin’s theory of social Darwinism and the civil war. Darwinism

gave a theory of how natural selection

works and the civil war convinced

many that God would not save them

from tragedy and violence.

Culture

Since there was a great increase in the

population of the United States and more urban cities developed, new ways to entertain mass populations emerged. Movie theatres and art museums were built as a way to keep people happy and entertained. The creation of saloons, which were old time bars in the west, allowed for a place of gathering for those in the working class. Those in the upper/wealthy classes started to use their wealth to live in the most lavish way possible. Since mass production was made possible in the Gilded Age, consumerism was a way of life for those who were wealthy. Many people bought things that were not useful but would signify a greater status for their family.

Rise in Political Machines

Examples

Political machines were institutions

in urban cities which controlled many aspects of the community, such as policies, voting trends, and economics. There was a single powerful boss who had a “political machine” or a group of people below who would try to gain votersupport. While political machines and the bosses who

ran them were often corrupt, they did a lot to

help struggling immigrants in their

communities.

Positives

Examples of political machines and negative outcomes

Tammany Hall is one of the most well-known

examples of the political machine. Tammany Hall was a New York City political organization which controlled the city and its politics which ultimately led to immigrants (specifically the Irish) rise in power. William Tweed was the “boss” of Tammany Hall and was one of the most corrupt politicians. He offered jobs in local congress to those who were loyal to him, rather than those with actual merit. He rigged multiple elections for the Democratic Party by paying sheriffs to allow those in his circle to vote more than once. He also resulted to using violence when people did not vote his way by sending

thugs or crooked cops which caused fear in those

in the city.

Positive Outcomes

Since political machines offered

jobs/services in exchange for a vote, their main customers were immigrants. Immigrants who had just landed in New York often had no jobs and no homes to live in. However, Tammany Hall and Boss Tweed made sure that the immigrants had jobs, a place to live, food to eat, and medical care. Boss Tweed donated millions to places that would support immigrants, such as their local churches, schools, orphanages, charities, and hospitals. Immigrants would happily vote for the Democrats who

ran the city since they did so much

for them.

American Imperialism

1898

1901-1907

Theme 4

Between 1865 and 1901, the

United States significantly expanded as an imperialist state. Many of the events that contributed to the U.S.'s imperialist expansion during this period still have an impact on it now in terms of things like international relations and relationships with foreign

leaders.

1903-1913

Spanish Amercian War: April 21, 1898 – December 10, 1898

Yellow Journalism

Treaty of Paris

The Spanish-American War,

which broke out between the United

States and Spain in 1898, led to the end of Spanish colonial power in the Americas and the U.S. gaining control of territory in the western Pacific and South America. Cuba was the starting point of the conflict as it fought for independence from Spain in February 1895. The brutality of the Spaniards led to a revolt against them, which was sparked by

yellow journalism in the US.

Yellow Journalism

Yellow journalism was a type

of newspaper reporting that focused on sensationalism rather than facts. During its heyday in the late nineteenth century, it was one of many factors that pushed the United States and Spain into war in Cuba and the Philippines, leading to the United States' acquisition of overseas territory. William Randolph

Hearst is well-known for using his

newspapers to advocate for American involvement in the war.

Treaty of Paris

On December 10, 1898, the Treaty of Paris was signed, officially ending the Spanish-American War. Spain renounced all claims to Cuba, ceded Guam and Puerto Rico to the US, and transferred sovereignty over the Philippines to the US in exchange for $20 million.

Theodore Roosevelt's Foreign Policy

Roosevelt Corollary

Russo-Japanese War

America was now an overseas empire,

and Roosevelt believed that the United States needed to wield the kind of power in world affairs that European empires did. He believed that US interests were global interests, and that it was actually beneficial for "civilized" nations, including the US, to intervene in the affairs of other countries. Roosevelt was also concerned that if the United States did not play a larger role in world affairs, it would lose its status as a world power. Roosevelt ensured that the United States played a larger role in international diplomacy while also reminding other

countries that it was building

a large navy.

Gentleman's Agreement

Roosevelt Corollary:

1905

  • The Roosevelt Corollary advanced the Monroe doctrine. Roosevelt stated in it that the United States had a responsibility to protect countries in the Americas from recolonization by European powers, and that the US would intervene militarily if necessary.
  • In accordance with the Monroe Doctrine, Roosevelt stated that the United States was justified in using "international police power" to put an end to chronic unrest or wrongdoing in the Western Hemisphere.
  • This strategy is also known as "Big Stick Diplomacy."

Russo-Japenese War 1904-1905

Roosevelt was awarded the Noble Peace Prize for his role in bringing the Russo-Japanese War to an end. He negotiated a peace treaty, Treaty of Portsmouth, that brought the war to an end. His negotiation marked a significant shift in the presidency of the United States, as previous presidents had not done so. Roosevelt believed that America's interests were global, and that events in Japan would have a real impact on American interests.

It signaled a new role the US in international policy

Gentleman's Agreement of 1907

During his presidency, Roosevelt signed

legislation that further restricted who could immigrate to the United States. The immigration policy for which Roosevelt gained the most notoriety, though, was an informal diplomatic agreement meant to reduce tensions between nations. The Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907-08 was an informal agreement reached between the United States and Japan to alleviate growing tensions between the two countries, particularly over immigration. It requested that US President Theodore Roosevelt order San Francisco to repeal its Japanese-American school segregation order in exchange for Japan agreeing to deny emigration passports to Japanese laborers while still

allowing wives, children, and parents of

current immigrants to enter the US.

Panama Canal

John Stevens

On February 23, 1904, the United States

Senate ratifies a treaty with the newly established Republic of Panama, giving the United States control over the Panama Canal Zone.The construction of the Panama Canal was the most spectacular of Roosevelt's foreign policy initiatives. Roosevelt was a driving force behind the construction of the Panama Canal, a waterway that allows ships to travel between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans without having to circumnavigate South America. The United States officially began construction on the canal in 1904 and continued until 1914, five

years after Roosevelt left office.

The Rise of Diseases

John Stevens

As the Panama Canal's chief engineer

from late 1905 to early 1907, John Frank Stevens, an American civil engineer and railroad executive, laid the groundwork for the project's successful completion. Stevens treated the task as if it were a sizable railroad project requiring the timely transportation of large quantities of cargo—in this case, earth—in large quantities. His organizational and planning abilities were crucial in getting the project moving. Stevens took several measures to make the Canal Zone more livable for American workers. He increased the availability of food and began a sizable construction project for worker housing. Most significantly, he played a key role in persuading President Theodore Roosevelt that a high-level canal that

combined locks and a dammed lake

was feasible.

The Rise of Diseases

The Panama Canal construction site was plagued by the deadly epidemic diseases yellow fever and malaria. During the French effort to build the Canal, over 22,000 workers died, many of them from malaria and yellow fever. Yellow fever symptoms were frightening: fever, headaches, back pain, extreme thirst, and black vomit from internal bleeding. When the United States took over construction of the Canal in 1904, Theodore Roosevelt appointed Colonel William Gorgas as Chief Sanitary Engineer. Gorgas had successfully eradicated yellow fever from Cuba in 1901 after discovering that the disease was transmitted by the mosquito Aedes aegypti.

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