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Final Project By Allison Wade
Brown vs. Board of Education of Topeka
In 1954, the United States Supreme Court made a decision on what came to be a landmark case. In this decision, the Supreme Court ruled unanimously that "separate but equal" was in fact, not equal, overturning Plessy v. Ferguson (1896). This case was a combination of five cases that came before the court, all on the issue of segregation in schools. Thurgood Marshall, who later became the first Black Supreme Court Justice, was the attorney for Brown (and the other plaintiffs).
The Montgomery Bus Boycott
In December of 1955, Rosa Parks was arrested for refusing to give up her seat on a bus for a white passenger. The Women's Political Council advocated for a one-day protest of the buses in Montgomery, which became promoted by the Montgomery NAACP. Due to the success of 90 percent of Montgomery's black population partaking in the boycott, the MIA (Montgomery Improvement Association) voted to extend the protest and created a list of demands to be met. These demands included first come, first serve seating and proper treatment by bus employees. City officials grasped at ways to end the boycott, including penalty for black taxi drivers, injunctions, and criminal charges against the leaders. Martin Luther King, Jr. was president of the MIA and in State of Alabama v. M.L. King, Jr. he was convicted for conspiracy to interfere with lawful business. Regardless of these attempts, the boycott continued.
Browder v. Gayle (1956)
Fred Gray and Charles D. Langford filed a petition in 1956 on behalf of four women (Aurelia S. Browder, Susie McDonald, Claudette Colvin, and Mary Louise Smith) that were treated harshly on buses. Thurgood Marshall and the NAACP assisted in the case.
In June of 1956, the federal district court ruled in a 2 to 1 decision that segregation on buses was unconstitutional in Browder v. Gayle. In November, the United States Supreme Court reinforced this decision. This decision led to Martin Luther King, Jr. and MIA ending the Montgomery Bus Boycott in December.
In 1955, the United States Supreme Court issues a second opinion known as Brown vs. Board of Education II. In this, the court sends future cases involving desegregation to the lower courts and instructs schools to proceed "with all deliberate speed." This phrase became widely known for its manipulation to justify schools avoiding desegregating.
In 1957, nine African-American teenagers were the first to enroll at the previously all white, Little Rock Central High School in Arkansas. Their enrollment was met with mob violence and threats.
Governor Orval Faubus sent the Arkansas National Guard to prohibit these nine teenagers from entering school. His action was an example of the manipulation of "with all deliberate speed" opinion.
Melba Pattillo Ernest Green Elizabeth Eckford Minnijean Brown Terrence Roberts Carlotta Walls Jefferson Thomas Gloria Ray
Thelma Mothershed
In response, President Eisenhower implemented Executive Order 10730, which sent federal troops from the 101st Airborne Division to the school to protect the students as they attended school and ordered the National Guard to obey federal authority.
This poem by Langston Hughes was published in 1957. This poem exemplifies a struggle a person faces, but despite all the obstacles they are "still here." It is a poem of perseverance and determination, that aligns with Hughes's role as an advocate for many and activist for equality.
Hughes & Simple
During this time, Hughes gained much popularity not only through his poertry and activism, but throught the creation of the character Jesse B. Semple & the Simple Stories. Hughes wrote multiple novels, magazine columns, and musical comedies using this character. One of these being "Simply Heavenly" in 1957. Hughes used comedy surrounding a super simple and relatable character to spark thought around numerous social and political topics of the times. While entertaining itself, Hughes was able to use this character to bring to light many issues and create conversation around many important topics.
In 1960, at Woolworth's Lunch Counter in Greensboro, North Carolina, a group of four African-American college students were denied service. The students from North Carolina Agricultural and Technical College, refused to leave the counter as protest of this treatment. The police were called but were unable to intervene due to the peaceful nature of the protest. The four students remained in their seats until close, but returned the next days with more students. This successful protest inspire many more including the Freedom Riders.
Ezell Blair Jr.
David Richmond Franklin McCain Joseph McNeil
The Civil Rights Act of 1960 was focused on strengthening the voting rights for African Americans in the United States. This act implemented stricter penalties against anyone who interferes with voting or registering to vote. It also added federal inspection of voting polls.
Hughes began writing this collection of poems at the Newport Jazz Festival. This collection is unique because it contains musical notes in the margins and has been read to music. The poems address the frustation and struggles with social freedom that many African Americans faced, while also celebrating the musical art that arose from this struggle.
16th Street Baptist Church Bombing - 1963
On September 15th of 1963 in Birmingham, Alabama a bomb went off before the morning service at a predominately black church, killing four young girls and injuring more.
Birmingham was known for its restraint against the Civil Rights Movement and outwardly racist stance.
Many of the protests in Birmingham advocating for civil rights and equality began at the 16th Street Baptist Church. The bombing was not the first in Birmingham, as this was a common attack against Black churches and homes. The National Guard was called in to resolve the violence from the aftermath.
Hughes wrote the poem "Birmingham Sunday" in response to these tragic deaths and brutal attacks against Black citizens.
Addie Mae Collins
Cynthia Wesley
Carole Robertson
Denise McNair
The four young girls who were killed:
The Dream
It is widely known that during the March on Washington in 1963, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. gave his impactful "I Have a Dream" speech.
Full Speech: https://www.npr.org/2010/01/18/122701268/i-have-a-dream-speech-in-its-entirety
It is less widely known that Langston Hughes played a major role in the evolution and inspiration of this speech, which first began in Rocky Mount, NC (1962). In fact, King used many ideas and references to Hughes's work throughout his journey as an activist. He often did not mention Hughes by name due to the ongoing investigation and controversy surrounding Hughes's possible political beliefs.
http://kingsfirstdream.com/
Langston Hughes passed away in May of 1967.
https://www.backlash-blues.com/
Langston Hughes and Nina Simone were great friends, sharing numerous postcards, letters, and meetings in their lifetime. In 1966, Hughes sent Nina Simone his poem, "Backlash Blues" which Simone would turn into one of her many hit songs. Hughes was able to attend when Nina Simone first sang the song, receiving a standing applause. The poem itself was a statement against the Vietnam War that was ongoing.
Nina Simone
Richard and Mildred Loving were an interracial couple residing in Virginia. Richard and Mildred were married in Washington D.C. in 1958. Virginia’s anti-miscegenation laws made it a felony to marry inter-racially. Richard and Mildred were both found guilty and sentenced to one year in prison, which was suspended on the requirement that they leave the state and not return together for at least 25 years. Richard and Mildred complied and moved to Washington D.C., however, in 1963, Mildred Loving contacted the U.S. Attorney General to request help in their situation, who put them in contact with the American Civil Liberties Union. The ACLU agreed to take their case.
In a 9-0, unanimous decision, the court held that the Virginia law against interracial marriage is in violation of the 14th Amendment, emphasizing that Virginia’s statute rests solely on distinctions between race as it details accepted conduct (marriage) made punishable only if it was engaged in by people of different races. The law served no other purpose than to discriminate between races. In addition to its’ violation of the Equal Protections Clause, the court also emphasizes that the law deprives people of liberty without due process. The court recognizes the right to marry as a “basic civil right of man” and a “fundamental freedom.”
This book was a collection of poems of Langston Hughes. It was published after his death in 1967. While many of Hughes's works are recognized for their messages of racial justice and emphasis on political, social, economic problems, this collection includes some of Hughes's most directly activist works such as Still Here and Birmingham Sunday.
https://exhibitions.lib.udel.edu/langston-hughes/langston-hughes-on-stage/
https://www.humanitiestexas.org/education/online-resources/ela/langston-hughes
https://www.fbi.gov/history/famous-cases/baptist-street-church-bombing
Https://www.learningforjustice.org
https://www.oyez.org/cases/1964/515
http://kingsfirstdream.com/
https://history.com
Langston Hughes is widely known as a poet, writer, and artist. Langston Hughes's work had a major influence in progressing the Civil Rights Movement. Hughes was a social and political activist through his own works and the works he inspired in others such as Martin Luther King, Jr. and Nina Simone. Many of his own poems focus on the struggles and harsh treatment of African Americans through the major themes or relation to real life events, such as the bombings in Alabama. While Hughes is not often accreditted with as much acknowledgement as other activists at the time, his work undoubtedly had a major imapct on the Civil Rights Movement and in the lives of other activists.