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AP Comparative Politics

Unit One

Introduction to Comparative Politics

Sovereignty, Authority, and Power

States, Nations, and Regimes

Introductory Terms

Country

Government

Regime

A regime refers to a system of institutions and practices that typically endures from government to government

A particular set of institutions and people authorized by formal documents (such as a constitution) that have the authority to pass laws, issue regulations etc...

A country is a distinct, politically defined territory that encompasses governments and is composes of political institutions, as well as cultures, economies, and collective identities

Example:

After an election in Canada, the political party and people may change but the system (regime) stays the same.

Simply put, a country is a defined as lines drawn on a map and everything inside.

In Canada, we have local, provincial, and federal governments. In each, there are law making bodies:

Regime Change

Stable Regime

A regime change is a situation in which the system of government changes.

A stable regime is one in which the change of government happens relatively smoothly without a change in system of government

legislative branch

executive branch

judicial branch

Examples:

1. When the authoritarian communist regime of the Soviet Union collapsed and was replace by a democracy

1. When an election in the United States leads to a change in president and/or political party, the system remains the same. This is a democracy staying as a democracy

2. When the presidential democracy in Nigeria was overthrown by a military coup and the government was replaced with a military dictatorship

2. When the dictator Kim Jong Il died in North Korea, the power transferred to his son, Kim Jong Un. The system of dictatorship remains the same

State

Nation

Nation-State

A nation-state exists when the state's boundaries and the national identity of its people coincide.

A nation is neither as country or a state. In fact, it is a psychological rather than an institutional concept.

A state is a compulsory political organization with a centralized government that maintains a monopoly of the legitimate use of force within a certain geographical territory

Nation refers to the cultural, linguistic, historical, or other identity that can tie a people together.

In other words, a nation-state is a country where a distinct cultural or ethnic group (a "nation" or "people") inhabits a territory and has formed a state that it governs

A state also includes institutions, which are stable, long-lasting organizations that help to turn political ideas into policy. Examples of institutions are bureaucracies, legislatures, judicial systems, and political parties

Nationalism is the sense of belonging and identity that distinguishes one nation from another

Example:

Examples:

Israel is considered the Jewish state. In other words, it is a state for the Jewish people.

Federated State

Sovereign State

Failed State

1. the French population of Québec

2. the First Nations/Indigenous Peoples of Canada

States may be classified as sovereign if they are not dependent on, or subject to any other power or state

A federated state is a territorial and constitutional community forming part of a federation. Such states differ from sovereign states in that they have transferred a portion of their sovereign powers to a federal government

A failed state is one where the national government cannot maintain law and order or provide basic services throughout the country. The key institutions of the state itself may violate the rule of law and prey upon the population.

Multinational State

Stateless Nations

Most countries in the world would be considered sovereign states; however, there are exceptions:

A federated state may also be referred to by various terms such as a state, a province, a canton, a land

Examples:

A stateless nation is a political term for an ethnic group or nation that does not possess its own state and is not the majority population in any nation state

A multinational state is one that contains more than one nation

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

Examples:

Ethnic Nation

Civic Nation

Somalia

Afghanistan

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is a sovereign state composed of four constituent countries that extends its sovereignty over a number of associated territories. These four countries are England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland

States in the United States of America

Provinces in Canada

Cantons in Switzerland

Watch the following video:

Examples:

In ethnic nations, membership within a specific national identity is based specifically on a common ethnic identity

In civic nations, members of the nation are united by multi-ethnic cultural features and citizenship within the state rather than by shared ethnic identity

Canada can be considered a multinational or multicultural state

Examples:

The Kurds are a nation of some 20 million people that are without a state. They occupy territory in six different states in the Middle East and wish to have their own state.

Examples:

The former Soviet Union was considered a multinational state in that it was made up of 15 "soviet republics" such as Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Estonia, Latvia, and others. When the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991, these former soviet republics became independent nation-states

1. Kurds in Iran

2. Chechens in Russia

1. Canada

2. Great Britain

States

Nations

Regimes

Types of Regimes

In general, there are three types of regimes:

Democratic

Authoritarian

Totalitarian

Totalitarian Regimes

Authoritarian Regimes

Democratic Regimes

This type of regime bases its authority on the will of the people

In this type of regime, decisions are made by political elites

This type of regime controls nearly every aspect of public and private life

Indirect vs. Direct

Key Characteristics of a Democracy

1. free and fair elections

A single leader

A small group of people

A single political party

2. competitive elections that allow opposition parties to form and participate

3. government-developed policies based upon procedures that guarantee due process,

transparency in decision-making, and accountability of elected officials

In an indirect democracy, there are elected officials representing the people

In a direct democracy, individuals have immediate say over decisions made by the government

4. political and civil rights that are possessed by all citizens

Key Characteristics of a Totalitarian Regime

Authoritarian Regime vs. Totalitarian Regime

5. an independent judiciary that upholds the civil liberties of citizens and oversees the

rule of law

Authoritarian regimes and Totalitarian regimes are not exactly the same thing

6. elected government officials who exercise supreme authority over the government

(civilian authority exists over the military and private powerholders)

1. there is an official ideology

Most democracies are indirect - mainly because large populations make it impossible for individuals to have direct say

7. agreement that conflicts will be resolved peacefully according to legal procedures

and without violence - this is rule of law

1. Unlike totalitarian regimes, authoritarian regimes do not necessarily seek to control and

transform all aspects of the political and economic systems of the society

2. there is a single mass party

Key Characteristics of an Authoritarian Regime

Communism vs. Corporatism

3. there is a single leader that has a monopoly on political power

2. Totalitarian regimes generally have a strong ideological goal that many authoritarian regimes lack

4. they use security forces to impose terror and repression over society

3. Authoritarian regimes do not necessarily use violence as a technique for destroying and

obstacles to their power

Communism

Corporatism

1. small group of elites exercising power over the state

Some authoritarian regimes are based on corporatism

Some authoritarian regimes are based on communism

2. citizens have little or no input into selection of leaders and government decisions

Consolidated Democracies

Illiberal Democracies

Examples of an Authoritarian Regime

Examples of an Totalitarian Regime

also known as liberal or substantive democracies

also known as procedural democracies

3. no constitutional responsibility of leaders to the public

North Korea

China

Corporatism is a method by which authoritarian regimes try to control the public by creating organizations to represent interests of the public.

Communism is a political theory developed in the 19th century by Karl Marx and altered in the 20th century by V. I. Lenin and Mao Zedong

Russia

Nazi Germany

4. restriction of civil rights and civil liberties

These are democracies that demonstrate consistent adherence to the seven key characteristics of a democracy over an extended period of time

5. limited autonomy of society from state control

In a procedural democracy, only the basic structures and institutions of democracy are in place. The country may conduct regular, free, and fairly competitive elections but elected officials often use electoral procedures to keep themselves in power

This practice makes the government appear to be less authoritarian, but in reality the practice eliminates any input from groups not sanctioned or created by the state

In a communist regime, the communist party controls everything from the government to the economy to social life.

6. limitations placed on political opposition groups and dissidents

Countries like Canada, the United States, and Great Britain are all consolidated democracies

7. economy is tightly controlled by political elite

Moreover...

There is an exception:

A country might be considered a liberal or substantive democracy without being considered consolidated. It is a question of how long democratic norms have been practiced.

Other characteristics of a democratic regime are limited. These would include civil liberties, rule of law, independent judiciary, and civilian control of the military

Example:

Mexico is considered a liberal democracy because it demonstrates all seven key characteristics. However, it would not be considered consolidated because it only transitioned from one-party rule in the 21st century

A perfect example of an illiberal democracy is Vladimir Putin's Russia.

Military Regimes

This is another type of nondemocratic rule

In general, there are two main types of democratic systems

A common misconception about authoritarian regimes is that they are not legitimate governments

In a state where legitimacy and stability are in question, especially when violence is threatened, the military may intervene directly since it is often the only organization that can resolve the chaos

Parliamentary Systems

Presidential Systems

Military rule usually begins with a coup d'état, a forced takeover of the government

In a presidential system, citizens vote for the legislative representatives as well as for the leaders of the executive branch.

In a parliamentary system, citizens vote for the legislative representatives but not for the leaders of the executive branch. These leaders are chosen by the political parties.

In a parliamentary system, there is no separation of powers between the legislative branch and the executive branch as the executive branch sits within the legislative branch

In a presidential system, there is a separation of powers between the legislative branch and the executive branch as the executive branch sits outside of legislative branch

Military leaders usually restrict rights and liberties to keep order

If the people accept the authority of the leaders, and other countries recognize the regime's right to rule, authoritarian regimes may be said to be legitimate

Example:

In a Canada and Great Britain, the Prime Minister and Cabinet (executive branch) sit as MPs in the House of Commons (legislative branch)

In the United States, the President is elected directly by the citizens as well as members of Congress (legislative branch). However the President and his cabinet are completely separate from the Congress.

In a parliamentary system, the Head of State and Head of Government are served by different people

In a presidential system, the Head of State and Head of Government are served by the same person

Example:

In a Canada and Great Britain, the head of state (a role that symbolizes the power and nature of the regime) is the Queen who has little or no governmental power

Example:

In the United States, the President serves as both the Head of State and Head of Government

Semi-Presidential System

A semi-presidential system is a system of government in which a president exists alongside a prime minister and a cabinet.

In a Canada and Great Britain, the head of government (a role that deals with the everyday tasks of running government) is the Prime Minister

It differs from a parliamentary system in that it has an elected head of state, who is more than a purely ceremonial figurehead

It differs from a presidential system in that there is a Prime Minister and Cabinet that are responsible to the legislature

France

Examples:

Russia

Hybrid Regimes

Democracy Index

There are many regimes in which elements of both democracy and authoritarianism can be found

The "Democracy Index" is published by The Economist and ranks countries around the world in terms of their democratic practices

The index is based on five categories:

Semi-democratic and semi-authoritarian are terms used to refer to a state that shares both democratic and authoritarian features

electoral process and pluralism

civil liberties

functioning of government

political participation

political culture

These regimes might also be referred to as illiberal democracies

Countries are categorized into four types of regimes:

full democracies

flawed democracies

hybrid regimes

authoritarian regimes

These regimes might also be referred to as illiberal democracies

Of the six countries studied in this course:

Great Britain is a full democracy

Mexico is a flawed democracy

Nigeria is a hybrid regime

China, Russia, and Iran are authoritarian regimes

Power and Legitimacy

Power

Politics is basically all about power. To that end, political power lies in the hands of the state.

There are two type of power:

Coercive Power

Non-coercive Power

Coercive Power

Non-Coercive Power

Coercive power uses the threat of force to gain compliance from another

Non-coercive power comes from an elected, selected, or appointed position of authority and is supported by social norms.

Force may include physical, social, emotional, political, or economic means

It results from a sense of legitimacy

Power

and

Legitimacy

Legitimacy

Political Culture

Political culture refers to the collection of political beliefs, values, practices, and institutions upon which a government is based

Political legitimacy is the right to rule as determined by the citizens. In other words, it is a belief by those obeying the state that the people and institutions that make the rules have the right to govern

There are five components of political culture

There are three types of legitimacy

Traditional, Charismatic, and Rational-Legal

beliefs about authority

group vs. individual

liberty vs. security

political system legitimacy

political community

Traditional Legitimacy

Charismatic Legitimacy

Rational-Legal Legitimacy

This rests on the dynamic personality of an individual leader or a small group

This rests on the belief that tradition determines who should rule and how

This rests on an established set of rules in a political system

This is most often seen in one family's claim to power and/or the belief that God has granted the leader the right to rule

This legitimacy is based on institutions, such as a constitution, that establish the set of rules on which the political system is founded and which political leaders must follow

The leader becomes legitimate because of the leader's ability to inspire or because the people like or feel attached to the leader. This is often referred to as a cult of personality

Example:

Beliefs about Authority

Group vs. Individual

Liberty vs. Security

Constitutions

Traditional legitimacy is common in monarchies and incorporates the idea of the "divine right of kings"

Great Britain

Japan

A constitution acts as the official "rules of the game" for a particular political system

Example:

Constitutions include:

positions of government authority

specific powers of these positions

rules for making new laws

rules that put restraints on government officials

Rule of Law

Constitutions vary from state to state

These beliefs address whether a society emphasizes that the fate of the collective population is more important than that of the individual

Citizens may not like specific laws, but they accept them as legitimate because they believe that the process through which laws are made is itself legitimate. This is referred to as the RULE OF LAW

Kim Jong-un of North Korea

Mao Zedong of China

Joseph Stalin of Russia

Some constitutions are unwritten and based on tradition and legal precedents, such as the constitution of Great Britain

The rule may take two forms:

When freedom is more important than order and security, there will be an emphasis on freedom from government action

These beliefs address whether the population accepts the political authority and whether this relationship is vertical or horizontal

Common Law

Code Law

Some constitutions are very long and detailed, such as the constitutions of China and Mexico

Code law is based on a comprehensive system of written rules (codes) of law divided into commercial, civil, and criminal codes

Common law is based on tradition, past practices, and legal precedents set by the courts through interpretations of statutes, legal legislation, and past rulings

Code law is found in China, France, Germany, Japan

Common law is English in origin and is found in Great Britain, Canada, and the United States.

Rituals, symbols, myths, and ceremonies all help support traditional legitimacy.

Some constitutions are short and abstract like that of the United States

Most modern states are based on rational-legal legitimacy but that does not mean that traditional legitimacy and charismatic legitimacy are not still important

Vertical Social Relations exist in societies that emphasize a hierarchy of authority

Individualist political cultures discourage governments from implementing policies that protect groups

In the Middle East, many leaders base their legitimacy on the ability to interpret traditional religious (sharia) law

Consider Great Britain:

Great Britain still maintains the traditional legitimacy of its monarchy to add stability and credibility to its political system

Consider Russia:

It can be argued that much of Vladimir Putin's authority in Russia is based on his charisma

When security and order are valued more than freedom, then the state will be allowed to intrude in the personal lives of individual citizens in the name of maintaining order

Collective political cultures favour government programs that benefit the majority of society

Horizontal Social Relations exist in societies that emphasize equality among members of society and political authority

Political System Legitimacy

Political Community

Factors that Contribute to Legitimacy

Belief Systems as Sources of Legitimacy

There are two kinds of political community:

The legitimacy of a state's political system is dependent upon whether citizens accept the existing regime as having the right to rule

There are many factors that contribute to the legitimacy of the modern state

Political Ideologies

Economic Systems

1. the people involved directly in government

A political ideology is a set of guiding principles about the proper design and function of politics and society

Free-Market Capitalism

Command Economy

Socialism

These factors contribute to legitimacy in both democratic and authoritarian states

Based on private ownership of property and business

Socialism emphasizes the public ownership of the means of production and an egalitarian distribution of wealth and income

Economic activity should take place within the MARKET

A political ideology reflects the values held by the people regarding what they think government and politics should accomplish

In a command economy, the state owns the physical capital, and workers are employed by the state

MARKET - a system of economic exchange where suppliers and purchasers find each other and agree to the terms of their transactions

Decisions about production and distribution are in the hands of government bureaucrats

Free-market capitalism suggests that the state should play little or no role in economic activity

Problems

Legitimacy is also dependent upon whether political leaders can be trusted

It is this support by the people of a particular political ideology that gives a government legitimacy

Strict free-market capitalism rejects state involvement in activity such as:

Command economies lack economic efficiency, innovation, and entrepreneurial motivation that exist in capitalist systems

  • setting standards for the workplace such as occupational safety

Command economies are plagued by economic stagnation and BLACK MARKETS

  • coordinating retirement benefits or a social security system

BLACK MARKETS - small-scale economies where products and services are bought and sold illegally

  • guarding against sharp divisions in wealth created by market activities

The free-market can result in disparity of income that leads to the stratification of social classes

Liberalism

Communism

Conservatism

Socialism

This is an ideology that advocates minimal regulation of the economy

This is a political system of social organization based on common ownership and coordination of production

This ideology opposes government intervention in the economy

This is an ideology in which the state plays an important role in organizing the economy and in which most businesses are publicly owned.

Conservatives do not support any kind of income redistribution

It favours free-market capitalism and personal freedoms for the individual

Communist systems value equality over personal freedoms

Mixed Economies

Historical tradition/longevity

Economic Well-Being

Charismatic Leadership

However...

Conservatives believe in preserving the existing political, social, economic arrangements of a society

Note:

These are systems with significant elements of both capitalist practices

A socialist regime differs from a communist regime in that:

In Comparative Politics, the term liberal is used differently than our common use today.

2. the citizens not directly involved in government but that are actively involved in the selection of government

  • a socialist regime allows the private sector to play an important role in the economy

The common use of the term liberal refers to support of "left-wing" politics that favours socialist reforms and interventionist government

In practice, the majority of states that have implemented communism have ruled through a single party, the Communist Party, which has controlled the state in an authoritarian manner

  • a socialist regime may be organized in a democratic manner where the government was chosen using democratic procedures

In Comparative Politics, the term liberal is the traditional meaning that refers to opposition to government intervention in the economy

Welfare Capitalist System

Socialist Market Economy

In this system, economic activity is based on capitalist principles

This system tries to mix state control and market forces to enhance economic development

However, government policies establish social programs that provide significant welfare benefits and services

The implication is that socialism will promote equality, while the market encourages people to hard and foreign companies to invest

Examples:

China

Great Britain

Canada

Citizens tend to credit their government with economic prosperity, and they often blame their government for economic hardships

State Capitalism

Libertarianism

Fascism

Reactionary Ideology

In this system, there is a greater role for state ownership of economic entities but less of a role in regulation and social welfare protection

If a government has been in place for a long time, citizens and other countries are more likely to view it as legitimate.

Charisma is a powerful factor in establishing legitimacy, whether the country is democratic, authoritarian, or totalitarian

This economy functions more like a free-market economy than welfare capitalist systems but with the state as a major economic player in the market

This is an ideology that is based on militarism and has an emphasis on remaking society along racial, religious, or ethnic lines.

Libertarians promote an even more limited role for government in all facets of society than that promoted by conservatives

This is particularly true in lucrative industries such as energy

Examples:

Russia

A reactionary is a person who holds political views that favour a return to the previous political state of society, which they believe possessed characteristics (discipline, respect for authority, etc.) that are now absent from the contemporary a society.

Fascist believe the regime should mold society in order to eliminate obstacles that might weaken the state.

Libertarians seek to maximize political freedom and autonomy, emphasizing freedom of choice, voluntary association, and individual judgment

This has often meant discriminatory practices and even genocide

Therefore, political legitimacy is reinforced by economic well-being

For example, a reactionary might be opposed to any form of egalitarianism as well as a return to traditional gender roles, monarchism, and a more libertarian-oriented economic system

Religion

Religion is an organized system of beliefs and devotion regarding a spiritual force or forces.

Nationalism

Satisfaction with the government's performance

Religion is based not only on beliefs but also on faith. While an individual can practice a faith, like culture, religion requires a collective of individuals or a "community of believers."

If citizens identify strongly with their nation not just the state, they are usually more accepting of the legitimacy of the government

The government is more likely to be considered legitimate if citizens receive benefits from the government, if the government wins wars, and/or if citizens are protected from violence and crime

Throughout history, religion and politics have often been bound together.

Factors that Shape Political Culture...

Examples...

Great Britain

China

China is officially an atheist state

Great Britain has an official state religion, the Church of England

Some religious movements such as Buddhism are tolerated while others are not

The Head of State, the Queen, is also the head of the church

As an example, the government has squelched the Falun Gong religious movement

Iran

Nigeria

Iran bases its entire political system on Shia Islam

In Nigeria, religious law (sharia) is an important source of legitimacy for the Muslim north of the country but not in the Christian south

The Head of State is the Supreme Leader who ensures the interests of Islam are paramount in Iran

Defining Events

Repeated Experiences

Political Socialization

These are smaller events that reoccur or are sustained over time and will cause political culture to be altered

These are events that shock society and cause political culture to overcome its resistance to change

This is the process of transmiting political culture from one generation to the next generation through social institutions

Examples:

Example:

The terrorist attacks on 9/11

The most important social institution is family but others include religion, education, workplace, media

The Great Depression

The Cold War

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