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AP Comparative Politics
Unit One
Introduction to Comparative Politics
Sovereignty, Authority, and Power
Introductory Terms
Country
Government
Regime
A regime refers to a system of institutions and practices that typically endures from government to government
A particular set of institutions and people authorized by formal documents (such as a constitution) that have the authority to pass laws, issue regulations etc...
A country is a distinct, politically defined territory that encompasses governments and is composes of political institutions, as well as cultures, economies, and collective identities
Example:
After an election in Canada, the political party and people may change but the system (regime) stays the same.
Simply put, a country is a defined as lines drawn on a map and everything inside.
In Canada, we have local, provincial, and federal governments. In each, there are law making bodies:
Regime Change
Stable Regime
A regime change is a situation in which the system of government changes.
A stable regime is one in which the change of government happens relatively smoothly without a change in system of government
legislative branch
executive branch
judicial branch
Examples:
1. When the authoritarian communist regime of the Soviet Union collapsed and was replace by a democracy
1. When an election in the United States leads to a change in president and/or political party, the system remains the same. This is a democracy staying as a democracy
2. When the presidential democracy in Nigeria was overthrown by a military coup and the government was replaced with a military dictatorship
2. When the dictator Kim Jong Il died in North Korea, the power transferred to his son, Kim Jong Un. The system of dictatorship remains the same
State
Nation
Nation-State
A nation-state exists when the state's boundaries and the national identity of its people coincide.
A nation is neither as country or a state. In fact, it is a psychological rather than an institutional concept.
A state is a compulsory political organization with a centralized government that maintains a monopoly of the legitimate use of force within a certain geographical territory
Nation refers to the cultural, linguistic, historical, or other identity that can tie a people together.
In other words, a nation-state is a country where a distinct cultural or ethnic group (a "nation" or "people") inhabits a territory and has formed a state that it governs
A state also includes institutions, which are stable, long-lasting organizations that help to turn political ideas into policy. Examples of institutions are bureaucracies, legislatures, judicial systems, and political parties
Nationalism is the sense of belonging and identity that distinguishes one nation from another
Example:
Examples:
Israel is considered the Jewish state. In other words, it is a state for the Jewish people.
Federated State
Sovereign State
Failed State
1. the French population of Québec
2. the First Nations/Indigenous Peoples of Canada
States may be classified as sovereign if they are not dependent on, or subject to any other power or state
A federated state is a territorial and constitutional community forming part of a federation. Such states differ from sovereign states in that they have transferred a portion of their sovereign powers to a federal government
A failed state is one where the national government cannot maintain law and order or provide basic services throughout the country. The key institutions of the state itself may violate the rule of law and prey upon the population.
Multinational State
Stateless Nations
Most countries in the world would be considered sovereign states; however, there are exceptions:
A federated state may also be referred to by various terms such as a state, a province, a canton, a land
Examples:
A stateless nation is a political term for an ethnic group or nation that does not possess its own state and is not the majority population in any nation state
A multinational state is one that contains more than one nation
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
Examples:
Ethnic Nation
Civic Nation
Somalia
Afghanistan
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is a sovereign state composed of four constituent countries that extends its sovereignty over a number of associated territories. These four countries are England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland
States in the United States of America
Provinces in Canada
Cantons in Switzerland
Watch the following video:
Examples:
In ethnic nations, membership within a specific national identity is based specifically on a common ethnic identity
In civic nations, members of the nation are united by multi-ethnic cultural features and citizenship within the state rather than by shared ethnic identity
Canada can be considered a multinational or multicultural state
Examples:
The Kurds are a nation of some 20 million people that are without a state. They occupy territory in six different states in the Middle East and wish to have their own state.
Examples:
The former Soviet Union was considered a multinational state in that it was made up of 15 "soviet republics" such as Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Estonia, Latvia, and others. When the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991, these former soviet republics became independent nation-states
1. Kurds in Iran
2. Chechens in Russia
1. Canada
2. Great Britain
Types of Regimes
In general, there are three types of regimes:
Democratic
Authoritarian
Totalitarian
Totalitarian Regimes
Authoritarian Regimes
Democratic Regimes
This type of regime bases its authority on the will of the people
In this type of regime, decisions are made by political elites
This type of regime controls nearly every aspect of public and private life
Indirect vs. Direct
Key Characteristics of a Democracy
1. free and fair elections
A single leader
A small group of people
A single political party
2. competitive elections that allow opposition parties to form and participate
3. government-developed policies based upon procedures that guarantee due process,
transparency in decision-making, and accountability of elected officials
In an indirect democracy, there are elected officials representing the people
In a direct democracy, individuals have immediate say over decisions made by the government
4. political and civil rights that are possessed by all citizens
Key Characteristics of a Totalitarian Regime
Authoritarian Regime vs. Totalitarian Regime
5. an independent judiciary that upholds the civil liberties of citizens and oversees the
rule of law
Authoritarian regimes and Totalitarian regimes are not exactly the same thing
6. elected government officials who exercise supreme authority over the government
(civilian authority exists over the military and private powerholders)
1. there is an official ideology
Most democracies are indirect - mainly because large populations make it impossible for individuals to have direct say
7. agreement that conflicts will be resolved peacefully according to legal procedures
and without violence - this is rule of law
1. Unlike totalitarian regimes, authoritarian regimes do not necessarily seek to control and
transform all aspects of the political and economic systems of the society
2. there is a single mass party
Key Characteristics of an Authoritarian Regime
Communism vs. Corporatism
3. there is a single leader that has a monopoly on political power
2. Totalitarian regimes generally have a strong ideological goal that many authoritarian regimes lack
4. they use security forces to impose terror and repression over society
3. Authoritarian regimes do not necessarily use violence as a technique for destroying and
obstacles to their power
Communism
Corporatism
1. small group of elites exercising power over the state
Some authoritarian regimes are based on corporatism
Some authoritarian regimes are based on communism
2. citizens have little or no input into selection of leaders and government decisions
Consolidated Democracies
Illiberal Democracies
Examples of an Authoritarian Regime
Examples of an Totalitarian Regime
also known as liberal or substantive democracies
also known as procedural democracies
3. no constitutional responsibility of leaders to the public
North Korea
China
Corporatism is a method by which authoritarian regimes try to control the public by creating organizations to represent interests of the public.
Communism is a political theory developed in the 19th century by Karl Marx and altered in the 20th century by V. I. Lenin and Mao Zedong
Russia
Nazi Germany
4. restriction of civil rights and civil liberties
These are democracies that demonstrate consistent adherence to the seven key characteristics of a democracy over an extended period of time
5. limited autonomy of society from state control
In a procedural democracy, only the basic structures and institutions of democracy are in place. The country may conduct regular, free, and fairly competitive elections but elected officials often use electoral procedures to keep themselves in power
This practice makes the government appear to be less authoritarian, but in reality the practice eliminates any input from groups not sanctioned or created by the state
In a communist regime, the communist party controls everything from the government to the economy to social life.
6. limitations placed on political opposition groups and dissidents
Countries like Canada, the United States, and Great Britain are all consolidated democracies
7. economy is tightly controlled by political elite
Moreover...
There is an exception:
A country might be considered a liberal or substantive democracy without being considered consolidated. It is a question of how long democratic norms have been practiced.
Other characteristics of a democratic regime are limited. These would include civil liberties, rule of law, independent judiciary, and civilian control of the military
Example:
Mexico is considered a liberal democracy because it demonstrates all seven key characteristics. However, it would not be considered consolidated because it only transitioned from one-party rule in the 21st century
A perfect example of an illiberal democracy is Vladimir Putin's Russia.
Military Regimes
This is another type of nondemocratic rule
In general, there are two main types of democratic systems
A common misconception about authoritarian regimes is that they are not legitimate governments
In a state where legitimacy and stability are in question, especially when violence is threatened, the military may intervene directly since it is often the only organization that can resolve the chaos
Parliamentary Systems
Presidential Systems
Military rule usually begins with a coup d'état, a forced takeover of the government
In a presidential system, citizens vote for the legislative representatives as well as for the leaders of the executive branch.
In a parliamentary system, citizens vote for the legislative representatives but not for the leaders of the executive branch. These leaders are chosen by the political parties.
In a parliamentary system, there is no separation of powers between the legislative branch and the executive branch as the executive branch sits within the legislative branch
In a presidential system, there is a separation of powers between the legislative branch and the executive branch as the executive branch sits outside of legislative branch
Military leaders usually restrict rights and liberties to keep order
If the people accept the authority of the leaders, and other countries recognize the regime's right to rule, authoritarian regimes may be said to be legitimate
Example:
In a Canada and Great Britain, the Prime Minister and Cabinet (executive branch) sit as MPs in the House of Commons (legislative branch)
In the United States, the President is elected directly by the citizens as well as members of Congress (legislative branch). However the President and his cabinet are completely separate from the Congress.
In a parliamentary system, the Head of State and Head of Government are served by different people
In a presidential system, the Head of State and Head of Government are served by the same person
Example:
In a Canada and Great Britain, the head of state (a role that symbolizes the power and nature of the regime) is the Queen who has little or no governmental power
Example:
In the United States, the President serves as both the Head of State and Head of Government
Semi-Presidential System
A semi-presidential system is a system of government in which a president exists alongside a prime minister and a cabinet.
In a Canada and Great Britain, the head of government (a role that deals with the everyday tasks of running government) is the Prime Minister
It differs from a parliamentary system in that it has an elected head of state, who is more than a purely ceremonial figurehead
It differs from a presidential system in that there is a Prime Minister and Cabinet that are responsible to the legislature
France
Examples:
Russia
Hybrid Regimes
Democracy Index
There are many regimes in which elements of both democracy and authoritarianism can be found
The "Democracy Index" is published by The Economist and ranks countries around the world in terms of their democratic practices
The index is based on five categories:
Semi-democratic and semi-authoritarian are terms used to refer to a state that shares both democratic and authoritarian features
electoral process and pluralism
civil liberties
functioning of government
political participation
political culture
These regimes might also be referred to as illiberal democracies
Countries are categorized into four types of regimes:
full democracies
flawed democracies
hybrid regimes
authoritarian regimes
These regimes might also be referred to as illiberal democracies
Of the six countries studied in this course:
Great Britain is a full democracy
Mexico is a flawed democracy
Nigeria is a hybrid regime
China, Russia, and Iran are authoritarian regimes
Power
Politics is basically all about power. To that end, political power lies in the hands of the state.
There are two type of power:
Coercive Power
Non-coercive Power
Coercive Power
Non-Coercive Power
Coercive power uses the threat of force to gain compliance from another
Non-coercive power comes from an elected, selected, or appointed position of authority and is supported by social norms.
Force may include physical, social, emotional, political, or economic means
It results from a sense of legitimacy
Legitimacy
Political Culture
Political culture refers to the collection of political beliefs, values, practices, and institutions upon which a government is based
Political legitimacy is the right to rule as determined by the citizens. In other words, it is a belief by those obeying the state that the people and institutions that make the rules have the right to govern
There are five components of political culture
There are three types of legitimacy
Traditional, Charismatic, and Rational-Legal
beliefs about authority
group vs. individual
liberty vs. security
political system legitimacy
political community
Traditional Legitimacy
Charismatic Legitimacy
Rational-Legal Legitimacy
This rests on the dynamic personality of an individual leader or a small group
This rests on the belief that tradition determines who should rule and how
This rests on an established set of rules in a political system
This is most often seen in one family's claim to power and/or the belief that God has granted the leader the right to rule
This legitimacy is based on institutions, such as a constitution, that establish the set of rules on which the political system is founded and which political leaders must follow
The leader becomes legitimate because of the leader's ability to inspire or because the people like or feel attached to the leader. This is often referred to as a cult of personality
Example:
Beliefs about Authority
Group vs. Individual
Liberty vs. Security
Constitutions
Traditional legitimacy is common in monarchies and incorporates the idea of the "divine right of kings"
Great Britain
Japan
A constitution acts as the official "rules of the game" for a particular political system
Example:
Constitutions include:
positions of government authority
specific powers of these positions
rules for making new laws
rules that put restraints on government officials
Rule of Law
Constitutions vary from state to state
These beliefs address whether a society emphasizes that the fate of the collective population is more important than that of the individual
Citizens may not like specific laws, but they accept them as legitimate because they believe that the process through which laws are made is itself legitimate. This is referred to as the RULE OF LAW
Kim Jong-un of North Korea
Mao Zedong of China
Joseph Stalin of Russia
Some constitutions are unwritten and based on tradition and legal precedents, such as the constitution of Great Britain
The rule may take two forms:
When freedom is more important than order and security, there will be an emphasis on freedom from government action
These beliefs address whether the population accepts the political authority and whether this relationship is vertical or horizontal
Common Law
Code Law
Some constitutions are very long and detailed, such as the constitutions of China and Mexico
Code law is based on a comprehensive system of written rules (codes) of law divided into commercial, civil, and criminal codes
Common law is based on tradition, past practices, and legal precedents set by the courts through interpretations of statutes, legal legislation, and past rulings
Code law is found in China, France, Germany, Japan
Common law is English in origin and is found in Great Britain, Canada, and the United States.
Rituals, symbols, myths, and ceremonies all help support traditional legitimacy.
Some constitutions are short and abstract like that of the United States
Most modern states are based on rational-legal legitimacy but that does not mean that traditional legitimacy and charismatic legitimacy are not still important
Vertical Social Relations exist in societies that emphasize a hierarchy of authority
Individualist political cultures discourage governments from implementing policies that protect groups
In the Middle East, many leaders base their legitimacy on the ability to interpret traditional religious (sharia) law
Consider Great Britain:
Great Britain still maintains the traditional legitimacy of its monarchy to add stability and credibility to its political system
Consider Russia:
It can be argued that much of Vladimir Putin's authority in Russia is based on his charisma
When security and order are valued more than freedom, then the state will be allowed to intrude in the personal lives of individual citizens in the name of maintaining order
Collective political cultures favour government programs that benefit the majority of society
Horizontal Social Relations exist in societies that emphasize equality among members of society and political authority
Political System Legitimacy
Political Community
Factors that Contribute to Legitimacy
Belief Systems as Sources of Legitimacy
There are two kinds of political community:
The legitimacy of a state's political system is dependent upon whether citizens accept the existing regime as having the right to rule
There are many factors that contribute to the legitimacy of the modern state
Political Ideologies
Economic Systems
1. the people involved directly in government
A political ideology is a set of guiding principles about the proper design and function of politics and society
Free-Market Capitalism
Command Economy
Socialism
These factors contribute to legitimacy in both democratic and authoritarian states
Based on private ownership of property and business
Socialism emphasizes the public ownership of the means of production and an egalitarian distribution of wealth and income
Economic activity should take place within the MARKET
A political ideology reflects the values held by the people regarding what they think government and politics should accomplish
In a command economy, the state owns the physical capital, and workers are employed by the state
MARKET - a system of economic exchange where suppliers and purchasers find each other and agree to the terms of their transactions
Decisions about production and distribution are in the hands of government bureaucrats
Free-market capitalism suggests that the state should play little or no role in economic activity
Problems
Legitimacy is also dependent upon whether political leaders can be trusted
It is this support by the people of a particular political ideology that gives a government legitimacy
Strict free-market capitalism rejects state involvement in activity such as:
Command economies lack economic efficiency, innovation, and entrepreneurial motivation that exist in capitalist systems
Command economies are plagued by economic stagnation and BLACK MARKETS
BLACK MARKETS - small-scale economies where products and services are bought and sold illegally
The free-market can result in disparity of income that leads to the stratification of social classes
Liberalism
Communism
Conservatism
Socialism
This is an ideology that advocates minimal regulation of the economy
This is a political system of social organization based on common ownership and coordination of production
This ideology opposes government intervention in the economy
This is an ideology in which the state plays an important role in organizing the economy and in which most businesses are publicly owned.
Conservatives do not support any kind of income redistribution
It favours free-market capitalism and personal freedoms for the individual
Communist systems value equality over personal freedoms
Mixed Economies
Historical tradition/longevity
Economic Well-Being
Charismatic Leadership
However...
Conservatives believe in preserving the existing political, social, economic arrangements of a society
Note:
These are systems with significant elements of both capitalist practices
A socialist regime differs from a communist regime in that:
In Comparative Politics, the term liberal is used differently than our common use today.
2. the citizens not directly involved in government but that are actively involved in the selection of government
The common use of the term liberal refers to support of "left-wing" politics that favours socialist reforms and interventionist government
In practice, the majority of states that have implemented communism have ruled through a single party, the Communist Party, which has controlled the state in an authoritarian manner
In Comparative Politics, the term liberal is the traditional meaning that refers to opposition to government intervention in the economy
Welfare Capitalist System
Socialist Market Economy
In this system, economic activity is based on capitalist principles
This system tries to mix state control and market forces to enhance economic development
However, government policies establish social programs that provide significant welfare benefits and services
The implication is that socialism will promote equality, while the market encourages people to hard and foreign companies to invest
Examples:
China
Great Britain
Canada
Citizens tend to credit their government with economic prosperity, and they often blame their government for economic hardships
State Capitalism
Libertarianism
Fascism
Reactionary Ideology
In this system, there is a greater role for state ownership of economic entities but less of a role in regulation and social welfare protection
If a government has been in place for a long time, citizens and other countries are more likely to view it as legitimate.
Charisma is a powerful factor in establishing legitimacy, whether the country is democratic, authoritarian, or totalitarian
This economy functions more like a free-market economy than welfare capitalist systems but with the state as a major economic player in the market
This is an ideology that is based on militarism and has an emphasis on remaking society along racial, religious, or ethnic lines.
Libertarians promote an even more limited role for government in all facets of society than that promoted by conservatives
This is particularly true in lucrative industries such as energy
Examples:
Russia
A reactionary is a person who holds political views that favour a return to the previous political state of society, which they believe possessed characteristics (discipline, respect for authority, etc.) that are now absent from the contemporary a society.
Fascist believe the regime should mold society in order to eliminate obstacles that might weaken the state.
Libertarians seek to maximize political freedom and autonomy, emphasizing freedom of choice, voluntary association, and individual judgment
This has often meant discriminatory practices and even genocide
Therefore, political legitimacy is reinforced by economic well-being
For example, a reactionary might be opposed to any form of egalitarianism as well as a return to traditional gender roles, monarchism, and a more libertarian-oriented economic system
Religion
Religion is an organized system of beliefs and devotion regarding a spiritual force or forces.
Nationalism
Satisfaction with the government's performance
Religion is based not only on beliefs but also on faith. While an individual can practice a faith, like culture, religion requires a collective of individuals or a "community of believers."
If citizens identify strongly with their nation not just the state, they are usually more accepting of the legitimacy of the government
The government is more likely to be considered legitimate if citizens receive benefits from the government, if the government wins wars, and/or if citizens are protected from violence and crime
Throughout history, religion and politics have often been bound together.
Factors that Shape Political Culture...
Examples...
Great Britain
China
China is officially an atheist state
Great Britain has an official state religion, the Church of England
Some religious movements such as Buddhism are tolerated while others are not
The Head of State, the Queen, is also the head of the church
As an example, the government has squelched the Falun Gong religious movement
Iran
Nigeria
Iran bases its entire political system on Shia Islam
In Nigeria, religious law (sharia) is an important source of legitimacy for the Muslim north of the country but not in the Christian south
The Head of State is the Supreme Leader who ensures the interests of Islam are paramount in Iran
Defining Events
Repeated Experiences
Political Socialization
These are smaller events that reoccur or are sustained over time and will cause political culture to be altered
These are events that shock society and cause political culture to overcome its resistance to change
This is the process of transmiting political culture from one generation to the next generation through social institutions
Examples:
Example:
The terrorist attacks on 9/11
The most important social institution is family but others include religion, education, workplace, media
The Great Depression
The Cold War