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AP Euro Time Period 2 Timeline
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European History
Timeline
A Journey Through E
Politics & Government
Politics &
Government
Political
Conflicts
Nine Years' War
Nine Years War - The Nine Years' War took place from September 24, 1688 through September 20, 1697.
The Nine Years' War, often called the War of the Grand Alliance or the War of the League of Augsburg, was a conflict between Louis XIV of France and a European alliance of the Holy Roman Empire, the Dutch Republic, Spain, England, and Savoy. The conflict itself serves as one King Louis XIV's attempt to expand the already powerful French province. One of Louis’ first attempts to expand the Kingdom of France came in 1688 when he invaded the Holy Roman Empire, then run by Austria. England, Scotland, the Dutch Republic, Spain, and Sweden all united against a shocked Louis XIV, who now had to face most of Europe at once
Despite the odds, France was actually better on the field, however, the navies of England the Dutch were able to strangle the French economy. The result was an essential stalemate, with France stuck and stranded in Europe and Alliance forces unable to invade France. After nine years of fighting, the two sides agreed to stop, and the Grand Alliance
succeeded in preventing Louis XIV’s France from growing in size and power.
War of Spanish Succession
The war of Spanish Succession took place from 1702, leading into 1715.
Without an heir to the throne, the King of Spain had passed, therefore, choosing Philip V King of Spain before the time of his death. However, Philip V was also the nephew of Louis XIV, the King of France. European nobility, rulers, and peasantry rose in opposition to this decision, this was because of the methods Louis XIV had extorted through his advantageous relationship with Spain. Two of which involved, Louis had arranged exclusive trade benefits with Spain while excluding the British and Dutch. Simultaneously, he also negotiated a future union between the two (now) massive empires.
Once this information had been extracted by the surrounding European nations, England (Great Britain after 1706), Austria, Prussia, and Portugal all declared war on both France and Spain. The fighting took place near the borders of France, where neither side could secure a major advantage over the other. After 13 years of draining resources, both sides agreed to resolve the conflict in peace, with France losing minimal territory and canceling its future union with Spain.
Seven Years' War
The Seven Years' War took place between the years 1756-1763.
"Emboldened" by their success in the War of Austrian Succession, Prussia aimed to acquire more territory from its former rulers in Austria in the province of Silesia. Much to the surprise of Prussia, rather than France re-establishing their alliance with Prussia against their historical rival, Austria, France had sided with both Russia and Prussia with a political agenda in their interests. This further increased when Great Britain came to the aid of Prussia, fighting France on two fronts, one in the Prussian conflict, while the other in America (over colony and territory ownership). Britain joined the conflict with the hope of reducing France's power in Europe (balance of powers), where Prussia would eventually declare itself the champion of the Seven Years' War for a number of reasons. Despite being financially drained, while lacking in economic power, Prussia won the conflict due to three central reasons, Britain's entry in the conflict provided the much needed support and ultimately distracted the French on many fronts. Meanwhile, after Catherine the Great had passed, her husband, Peter II ad officially taken over, immediate pulling Russia out of the conflict despite being on the verge of succeeding. And lastly, Frederick (III) the Great would turn out to be a very successful military tactician, especially considering the size of his country in correlation to that of France, Russia, and Austria. However, on a separate front, Great Britain and France had fought one another in the Americas, France had established many trade routes and colonies specifically dealing with the fur trade, producing an immense amount of wealth, meanwhile, England/Great Britain had attempted to establish their presence in the Americas for similar reasons, however, they were the ultimate winners, leaving each nation's economy very fragile.
European Absolutists
Louis XIV of France
Louis XIV, born in 1643 and died in 1715.
After the events in the Fronde, Louis XIV decided to increase the power of nobility in France, while simultaneously, keeping them close to him politically and physically, moving them to surrounding positions in Versailles. He allowed the Nobility to keep their local authority, rights, and privileges. Louis strengthened the already powerful nobility in France by assigning them to his more organized, essentially centralized French government and military. Nobel were able to run the bureaucracy, collect taxes, and became officers of the state-controlled military.
Important form systems enlisted by Louis would include the Intendent system, which was established to divide present states into multiple territorial districts, all of which were administered by a central intendent, Spain would adopt this system in 1711.
Contributing to France's bankruptcy (along with the multiple wars they were involved in), Louis built the Palace of Versailles, while simultaneously commissioning a multitude of artists, sculptures, musicians, and writers to glorify his life (& lifestyle), providing censorship against that of those who opposed his ideology, this contributed to the evolution of the Enlightenment as opinions, ideas, and advances (technological, religious, etc.) were expanded.
Peter the Great of Russia
Peter the Great of Russia, born in 1682, died in 1725. Peter the Great, despite a lack of formal education, followed a western reformation model, however, he rejected enlightenment ideals in favor of full control. Similar to Louis XIV, Peer had moved all surrounding nobles closer to him, allowing him to consolidate power through the monarchy and establish the full control he wished to pursue, forcing all of which to be part of his established government. He is Recognized for the following, reforming his military model under the Prussians, using nobles as officers. Peter also expanded Russian territory to the East, pushing into Poland. I his attempt to commercialize like Western Europe, Peter would open multiple trading ports, while also mimicking Louis XIV once more when attempting to build the city of St. Petersburg. In 1725, he went on to establish the Russian Academy of Sciences in 1725, once more, expanding the technological and scientific advances of Russia, and enabling them to "catch-up" with the remainder of Europe, these actions would classify Peter as an Enlightened Absolutist."
James I of England
James I of England, born in 1567 (died in 1625), greatly admired that of Louis XIV, he valued the ideology of the Divine Right of Kings, allowing monarchs to claim superiority through the word of God, enabling them to have unquestionable authority. Because of this, he believed others should accept his laws and policies without questioning, resulting in a completely conformed society. Parliament had refused to pay him an enormous tax, in response, he represented absolutist ideals and completely abolished Parliament, leading to a disarray in England. In his attempt to rule as a single power, James obtained funding b selling lands and titles to the highest bidder. This was the first time both Scotland and England ruled under a single monarch.
Alternatives to Absolutism
John Locke, Philosophies and Systems of Gov.
John Locke, born in 1632, (died in 1704), served as a major influence in how Governments operated, presenting alternative rule to that of absolutism, emphasizing the people's importance. He would continue to express his view that the government had the responsibility of serving in the interest of the people, all of which achieved by protecting the three fundamental human values, life, liberty, and property. He wished to limit the power of the government, representing a direct contrast to that of absolutist rule, this contribution would continue to lead into the American Revolution.
Natural Rights were those defined as what all humans receive upon the entrance of the world, those not being obstructed by government, or any system of ruling, for that matter. This matter was first introduced in 1776, found in the Declaration of Independence.
"Constitutionalism is the idea, often associated with the political theories of John Locke and the founders of the American republic, that government can and should be legally limited in its powers, and that its authority or legitimacy depends on its observing these limitations."
Another ideal introduced by John Locke was "Consent of the governed," essentially stating that the authority of the government relied on the consent of the people, whom of which they serve in the interest of, this is typically expressed by the process o voting for representatives in government.
English Civil War
"Alternatives to absolutism formed in the Parliamentary sovereignty, rights, and protections of England and the republic in the Netherlands." The English Civil War began in 1642, ending in 1651. It stemmed from the feud between Charles I (Ruler of England) with Parliament concerning arisal in England, whereas conflicts relevant to religion as well as the insolence involved in the actions of Charles I concerning his relation to Parliament and their power. Oliver Cromwell would eventually defeat English forces and execute Charles I, Nearly 20 years later, Charles II would usher into England, reclaim the throne, and enact a period of English resurrection.
Glorious Revolution
The Glorious Revolution (1688-1689) had occurred when William of Orange took the English throne from James II in 1688. William of Orange, a Dutch Protestant married to Mary, becoming the King of England, Scotland, and Ireland until his death in 1702, this event occurred in the midst of religious division, whereas himself, a protestant ruler, would rule over this nation. "The main consequence of the so-called English Revolution or Glorious Revolution was that, under the Bill of Rights of 1689, England became a constitutional monarchy, with the monarch's powers limited by law. ... James was forced to flee, and William became king with the backing of Parliament."
Enlightened
Monarchs
Frederick the Great of Prussia
From Birth (1740) to death (1786), Frederick of Prussia is remembered as an Enlightened Monarch, Considered one of the most successful reformers in Europe, Frederick was an educated individual who red Western Literature and was fond of both Enlightenment ideals on both government and religion.
He believed that although a monarch should practice full control, he/she needed to use the power in the interest of (to protect) the and serve their people (consent of the governed).
Under Frederick's rule, Frederick modernized Prussia through the following ways: Using Nobles in a central bureaucracy, and allowing them to maintain their rights. Reforming the military under the French model with appointed officers, and initiating religious toleration in Prussia.
Joseph II of Austria (1765-1790
Joseph II, the son of Maria Theresa would focus on changing laws and education following his mother's methodology. Although his mother had failed to centralize the Nobility (mainly due to cooperation against the Ottoman Empire) without maintaining their traditional local authority. Her son, Joseph II, made many Enlightenment-inspired changes to the HRE: Initiating religious toleration, beginning compulsory education for elementary boys, freeing surfs as peasants, and reforming the legal system to respect individual rights. Despite failing (overall) to reform Austria, Austrian power had grown substantially thanks to the conquests of Poland and the Ottoman Empire, in Southern/Eastern Europe.
Catherine the Great (1762-1796)
Peter's successor, Catherine the Great, continued to bring a multitude of national reforms, strengthening her nation's finance, power, and militarism. She enhanced education in Russia, and started school for women. She patronized Enlightenment writers and artists, removed the Eastern Orthodox from Russia state, and sold lands. However, including her own reformations, there were a few non-western aspects of reformation. She enlisted the nobles with more freedom, and required less gov. participation. She did, however, reinforce serfdom, and made the Russian economy dependent on the system. She also continued to expand Russia to the East, and vs. the decaying Ottoman Empire and Poland.
Liberal
Revolutions
Liberal Revolutions
The expansion of suffrage and protection of natural rights was exemplified during both the American Revolution and the French Revolution, each of which emphasized the importance of natural rights and the people serving under the government.
Both the American Revolution (1765-1783) and the French Revolution (1789-1799) would serve as an example and encourage the Revolutions of 1848, resulting in the nations of France, Germany, Italy, and the Austrian Empire to revolt against their absolutist governors. Although the majority of such revolutions ended in temporary failure, for example, after the occurrence of the French Revolution, the ultimate result ended in the en-statement of Napoleon, who would be deemed as emperor, or dictator, of such revolution and nation. Liberal Revolutions served in the interest of the nation's people, campaigning for human necessity and rights, however, the difference between the ideologies of the moderate reformers and radical enforces differed tremendously, resulting in a lack of correlation between the two parties.
French Revolution (1789-1799)
The Period during the French revolution reflected the era where French citizens rejected the monarchy in favor of their own rule for a multitude of factors. The major cause was the separation between estates and the lack of representation for the third estate, where most of the following revolved around the third estate. The French Revolution lasted 10 years from 1789 to 1799. It began on July 14, 1789 when revolutionaries stormed a prison called the Bastille. This led to the overthrowing of the monarchy and into the Reign of Terror, whereas roughly 50,000 French citizens were killed. Louis XVI - Louis XVI was king of France when the French Revolution began. The French economy struggled under Louis XVI due to large debt and massive expenses. When drought and poor grain harvests led to rising bread prices, the people began to revolt against their king. After French King Louis XVI was tried and executed on January 21, 1793, war between France and monarchical nations Great Britain and Spain was inevitable. These two powers joined Austria and other European nations in the war against Revolutionary France that had already started in 1791.
Reign of Terror (1793-1794)
While the French had succeeded in forming their new government, they experienced a slight amount of trouble fighting all of Europe at once. To combat the coalitions, the French instituted a "levee en masse" to draft the largest army of its age; this was a necessary means as no kings or nobles existed to contribute to an army. While their massive conscription army of 750,000 was doing well, especially under the brilliant general, Napoleon Bonaparte, their economy was unsustainable. Already riddled with debt and stripped of colonies from earlier conflicts, the British had cut the French off from the world with their navy, and food and money at home were scarce. When peasants and citizens became restless, and Louis XVI attempted to flee and fight against France. o keep peace in Paris, the government turned to the Jacobins—an extremely radical and militaristic part of the revolution, and their leader, Robespierre in 1792. Unfortunately for the republic, the Jacobins were far more radical than they had thought, and they would begin to impose their radical ideas on France. They allied themselves with the San-culottes (without breeches)—a radical militant group of regular people who were against royalty and nobility, and quickly began to purge moderates who opposed their violent ways. The first major group to succumb to their violent purge was the moderate. Girondins—a political group that were initially a part of the Jacobin movement. Most famously, they considered anyone who questioned the government or ideas a traitor, and imprisoned and executed thousands without a trial. When the republic government spoke out against the actions of Robespierre and the Jacobins, they turned on the gov., labeling them anti-revolutionaries. The Jacobins then imposed censorship, and imprisoned/executed all political opponents. n September of 1792, a massive purge began as the Jacobins killed thousands of prisoners, and targeted anyone who dressed lavishly. Initially headed by Georges Danton—a key revolutionary figure who helped to establish the constitutional republic and public education—the Committee soon turned on its own, beheading Danton for allegedly being too lenient on ‘enemies of the Revolution’
Napoleonic Era (1799-1815)
Two legislative councils were elected, who then appointed a Directory, an executive made of five members. ... Political instability of the Directory paved the way for the rise of military dictator Napoleon Bonaparte. Napoleon, the established military leader of France who greatly enhanced the French territory,
Napoleon took control of the government in a coup d'etat or military takeover. He now had the power to make laws, appoint government ministers and declare war. He ruled as a director from 1799 to 1815. Napoleon's elevation to Emperor was overwhelmingly approved by the French citizens in the French constitutional referendum of 1804. Among Napoleon's motivations for being crowned were to gain prestige in international royalist and Catholic circles and to lay the foundation for a future dynasty.
While Napoleon was in charge, he wanted to seem like he was continuing the themes of the
Revolution, when in reality, only a few aspects would remain the same. Wanting to be like late Roman or Byzantine emperor, he enacted the Concordat of 1801 which made the Catholic Church the ‘favored’ religion, and provided some state funding. Started the first state education system designed to educate a large range of French citizens. However, Napoleon was a big fan of equality and earning what you have, so he created a Civil Code’ (also known as the Napoleonic Code) for France. Key Civil Code reforms: elimination of nobility and their, land/privileges, religious freedom, common law for the entire nation, and equal treatment under the law. Napoleon had felt himself not equal with law, whereas women had no legal property or divorce rights, husbands could impriuson their wives for adultery, and he invoked censoership, limiting what was said about his rule.
Religious
Justification
Religious Toleration
Vs. Abolition
Reign of Terror Analysis
Abolition of Religion
Why?
The "de-christianization" of France during the French Revolution is a conventional description of the results of a number of separate policies conducted by various governments of France between the start of the French Revolution in 1789 and the Concordat of 1801 (An agreement formed between Napoleon Bonaparte and papal and clergy representatives in both Rome and Paris, defining the status of the Roman Catholic Church in France and ending the breach caused by the church reforms and confiscations enacted during the French Revolution), forming the basis of the later and less radical policies. The goal of the campaign between 1793 and 1794 ranged from the public reclamation of the massive amounts of land, power, and money held by the Catholic Church in France to the termination of Catholic religious practice and of the religion itself. There has been much scholarly debate over whether the movement was popularly motivated.
Was it Justified?
Was it
Justified?
The French Revolution initially began with attacks on Church corruption and the wealth of the higher clergy, an action with which even many Christians could identify, since the Catholic Church held a dominant role in pre-revolutionary France. During a two-year period known as the Reign of Terror, the occurrences of anti-clericalism grew more violent than any in modern European history. The new revolutionary authorities suppressed the Church, abolished the Catholic monarchy, nationalized Church property, exiled 30,000 priests and killed hundreds more. In October 1793, the Christian calendar was replaced with one referencing the date of the Revolution, and Festivals of Liberty, Reason and the Supreme Being which were all scheduled instead. New forms of moral religion emerged, including the deistic Cult of the Supreme Being and the atheistic Cult of Reason (state-sponsored atheistic religion), with the revolutionary government briefly allowing the authority of such actions to occur despite France being pre-dominantly Catholic,
Background Info.
Background
In 18th-century France, the vast majority of the population adhered to the Catholic Church as Catholicism had been since the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685 the only religion officially allowed in the kingdom. Nonetheless, minorities of French Protestants (mostly Huguenots), (German) Lutherans, and Jews still lived in France at the beginning of the Revolution. The Edict of Versailles, commonly known as the Edict of Tolerance, had been signed by Louis XVI on the 7 of November in 1787 and had not given non-Catholics in France the right to openly practice their religions but only the rights to legal and civil status, which included the right to "contract marriages without having to convert to the Catholic faith." At the same time, liberal thinkers popularized atheism and anti-clericalism (opposition to religious authority, typically in social or political matters).
On July 12, 1790, the assembly passed the Civil Constitution of the Clergy that subordinated the Catholic Church in France to the French government. It was never accepted by the Pope and other high-ranking clergy in Rome (the correlation between the clergy's actions and the first estate's).
Reasoning
Criticism was specifically directed at monasteries where monks and nuns spent their days in prayer, much to the anger of philosophes who thought they should instead be reproducing for the good of the nation. "The solemn vows taken by these men and women, binding them to the religious state for life, also led to concerns about individual liberty." Denis Diderot rallied against the lifelong nature of these vows, warning about decisions taken too young in life and, in his novel La Religieuse (The Nun), following the perspective of a young woman forced to be a nun against her will. Although most philosophes promoted reform rather than destruction, their comments gave encouragement to a growing anti-clericalism whose spite was increased by resentment of the Church’s wealth.
Statistics
Facts &
Figures
The Church’s revenue in 1789 was estimated at roughly – and potentially exaggerated – 150 million livres. It owned around six per cent of land throughout France, and its abbeys, churches, monasteries and convents, as well as the schools, hospitals and other institutions it operated, formed a visible reminder of the Church’s dominance in French society.
The Church was also permitted to collect the tithe, worth a one-tenth of agricultural production, and was exempt from direct taxation on its earnings.
Calls for the reform or abolition of the tithe and for the limitation of Church property were joined by complaints from parish priests who, excluded from the wealth bestowed upon the upper occupations of the Church hierarchy, often struggled to get by.
Did it involve Religion, or Finance?
Refutation
On the eve of the Revolution, the French state was on the verge of bankruptcy. Repeated attempts at financial reform had failed but the Revolution opened the way for a new approach that, from the beginning, involved the Church. On the 4th of August, 1789, when the remains of France’s feudal past were abolished in a night of sweeping reforms, the clergy agreed to give up the tithe and allow the state to take over its funding.
"Talleyrand, the bishop of Autun" and one of the few clerics to support the measure, argued that all Church property rightfully belonged to the nation and that its return, by helping to bring about a better society, should therefore be viewed as a "religious act".
France hoped that the quick sale of monasteries and their contents would help stabilize the nation’s finances. The announcement was met with thousands of letters of protest. The new French state had not only taken control of the Church’s revenue and property, but, through such radical intervention, seemed to be redrawing the boundaries between church and state.
State-Cults vs. Religion
Arisal of
Cults
The revolutionary government had learned, however, that when destroying the past, it was wise to have something to put in its place. The creation of the Republic in 1792 had resulted in a rise to ceremonies and festivals that aimed to make a religion of the Revolution itself, commemorating revolutionary ideals as its saints and exclaiming the "tri-colour cockade and red liberty cap as its sacred symbols." Prominent among such revolutionary ‘cults’, as they were known, was the Cult of Reason which recognized no god but instead worshiped the goddess of reason in the former churches, now known as ‘temples of reason’. Robespierre, wary of atheism and the political forces behind certain cults, introduced on 7 May, 1794 the Cult of the Supreme Being, which he envisaged as a new state religion. Its recognition of a supreme deity would, it was hoped, attract and harness the persistent desire for religious belief and worship among French men and women while its "proclamation of the soul’s immortality would encourage moral behavior" of the type that would ensure a stable Republic
Revival of Catholicism
Revival of Catholicism
The Directory witnessed a religious revival in which Catholic men and especially women played an important role in re-establishing their faith around the wreckage left by the Revolution. Napoleon came to power in 1799 ready to accommodate and continue the presence of religious belief and practice in French society, as much like the philosophes, he saw its uses for society.
The French Revolution completely changed the social and political structure of France. It put an end to the French monarchy, feudalism, and took political power from the Catholic church. Although the revolution ended with the rise of Napoleon, the ideas and reforms did not die.
Civil Constitution of the Clergy, French Constitution enlisted this decree to organize state-region: Civile Du Clergé
Art & Philosophy
Art &
Philosophy
Baroque art
Baroque Art/Music
Early 1600s-1740s
Commissioned heavily by the Catholic Church in the 16th and 17th centuries, a wave of new art took over the Vatican and Italy, spreading to the rest of Europe. This Baroque style focused on grandiose subjects and scenes, that were meant to dazzle with spectacular displays, contrasts and color. The church had begun to commision barroque artists in order to aid the counter-reformation launched by the Catholic Church. However, Baroque art soon began to gravitate from emphasis on monarch and glorification of the leader and state to ideas behind citzenship and policitcal power.
Shift in Baroque Art
A Shift in
Baroque Art and Music
For the first half of the 17th Century, it was typically popular for Kings, Nobles, and the Church to hire artists to paint them, representing their power.
Images and Themes centered on the Divine RIght of Kings or power. Music also centered around Monarchs and the Nobility. Popular composers represneting this era were Bach and Handel, who each wrote music that suited kings and nobels and served as a soft background music that was played at palaces and mansions.
Enlightenment Rationalism
Enlightenment Rationalism
The Enlightenment (late 17th-18th century intellectual movement). This movement emphasized reason, individualism, skepticism, and science. Enlightenment thinking contributed to the rise of deism, the belief that God created the universe, but does not interact with supernaturally with it. Enlightenment rationalism and the philosophy behind such a movement allowed thinkers to question the considered norm. Despite censorship, imprisonment, and book banning, Enlightenment ideals lived on and spread through the underground. These ideas on freedom, participation, and consent of the governed became extremely popular among people, and extremely unpopular among kings and nobles.
The Enlightenment: (1715-1789)
Voltaire (1694-1778)
Enlightenment Thinkers
In Paris, France, Voltaire established himself as one of the leading writers in The Enlightenment. Voltaire was critical of organized religion, advocating for separation of Church and State and religious freedom. Voltaire beloved in a God, however, claimed that God did not interfere with the life of humanity. He believed that social progress could be achieved through reason and that no authority, religious or political, should be immune to challenge by reason. He emphasized the importance of tolerance, especially that of religious toleration. Another aspect he believed in was freedom of expression and speech.
Diderot (1713-1784)
Diderot
Diderot was established as one of the first "scientific theorists," of the Enlightenment. Establishing the creation of the the Dictionary, a text consisting of all scientific, and proven academic terms, irrelevant from religion. He connected the newest scientific trends to radical philosophical ideas, spreading Enlightenment and literary through his text, Diderot established himself as an interpreter of the Enlightenment. Widely regarded as one of the most influential of Enlightenment thinkers, and commonly known as the “Father of Liberalism.” His writings were immensely influential for the development of social contract theory.
Rousseau (1712-1778)
Rousseau
Rousseau argued that the general will of the people could not be decided by elected representatives. He believed in a direct democracy in which everyone voted to express the general will and to make the laws of the land. Rousseau had in mind a democracy on a small scale, in his established Social Contract, Rousseau argues that laws are binding only when they are supported by the will of the general people. He claimed, "men [are] born free, but he is everywhere in chains," this directly challenged the traditional order of society and the citizen's relationship with their government. He believed the government should serve in the interest of its people.
John Locke (1632-1704)
Locke
John Locke, born in 1632, (died in 1704), served as a major influence in how Governments operated, presenting alternative rule to that of absolutism, emphasizing the people's importance. He would continue to express his view that the government had the responsibility of serving in the interest of the people, all of which achieved by protecting the three fundamental human values, life, liberty, and property. He wished to limit the power of the government, representing a direct contrast to that of absolutist rule, this contribution would continue to lead into the American Revolution. The English philosopher and political theorist John Locke (1632-1704) laid much of the groundwork for the Enlightenment and made central contributions to the development of liberalism. Trained in medicine, he was a key advocate of the empirical approaches of the Scientific Revolution. Like Hobbes, Locke believed that human nature allowed people to be selfish. This is apparent with the introduction of currency. In a natural state all people were equal and independent, and everyone had a natural right to defend his "life, health, liberty, or possessions".
Montesquieu (1689-1755)
Montesquieu
Montesquieu, a French political analyst who lived during the Enlightenment Era, proposed a number of reforms reflected in modern society. His is best known for his thoughts on the separation of powers. Montesquieu called the idea of dividing government power into three branches the "separation of powers." He thought it most important to create separate branches of government with equal but different powers. That way, the government would avoid placing too much power with one individual or group of individuals. Montesquieu concluded that the best form of government was one in which the legislative, executive, and judicial powers were separate and kept each other in check to prevent any branch from becoming too powerful. He believed that uniting these powers, as in the monarchy of Louis XIV, would lead to despotism.
Enlightenment Attributes & Religion
Effects on Religion
The Enlightenment had a profound effect on religion. Many Christians found the enlightened view of the world consistent with Christian beliefs, and used this rational thinking as support for the existence and benevolence of God. Preachers incorporated the vocabulary of reason and natural law into their sermons to explain how God works through natural causes without giving up their postulates that He is the first cause of everything.
he Enlightenment had its greatest impact among colonial elites, who in years to come would write a national constitution that balanced power among agencies of the government, protected religious liberty, and prevented the establishment of a national church. Most colonists, however, continued to subscribe to Protestant views of grace and salvation.
Neoclassical Art
Neoclassical Art
Rembrandt (1606-1669): Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn (1606 – 1669) was a Dutch artist active in the 17th century, a period known as the Dutch Golden Age. He is renowned as the master of light and shadow; and his paintings are of exceptional realism due to his trademark light and shadow effects.
Classical Composers created a new genre of music, symphony music, that was intended to be melodic and sophisticated. Mozart and Hyden were both considered to measure and contribute to this field.
Neoclassical art contained simple, dull styles and tones with select classical themes.
Classical Art Components and Features
Classical
Classical art had heavily inspired Enlightenment culture in the 17th and 18th century. Many aspects of such art and music were incorporated into their own pieces, some features of said genre were listed as the following: Although it varies from genre to genre, classical art is renowned for its harmony, balance and sense of proportion. In its painting and sculpture, it employs idealized figures and shapes, and treats its subjects in a non-anecdotal and emotionally neutral manner. The Classical period of Ancient Greece produced some of the most exquisite sculptures the world has ever seen. The art of the Classical Greek style is characterized by a joyous freedom of movement, freedom of expression, and it celebrates mankind as an independent entity, all of which expressed during the Enlightenment.
The Birth of Novels
(18th Century)
Novels
(& Authors)
Jane Austen (1775-1817):
Austen, who died on July 18, 1817, at 41, is known for her six completed novels, among them the highly adapted Pride and Prejudice and Sense and Sensibility. ... Austen's writing stands out for its comedy, self-awareness and realistic, detailed portrayals of characters and their relationships.
Samuel Richardson (1689-1761):
Samuel Richardson was an English writer and printer. He is best known for his three epistolary novels: Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded (1740), Clarissa: Or the History of a Young Lady (1748) and The History of Sir Charles Grandison (1753).
Novels had become extremely important during the Enlightenment Progression, focusing on everyday life narratives while also educating others on the importance of being educated, moral, and polite.
Classical Music
Classical Music (Continued)
Classical composers, created a new type music: symphony music, that was intended to be melodic and sophisticated. Once more, composers such as Mozart and Haydn had directly represented this era.
Mozart (1756-1791): Mozart was one of the greatest composers of the Enlightenment period. ... He's important because he was well known during the Enlightenment period, and because he was very artistic and intellectual in his style as a composer, meant he was a key person that influenced the concept of the Enlightenment.
Haydn (1732-1809): Franz Joseph Hadyn's music reflected Enlightenment ideals by further rationalizing the musical structures that had been developed in the Baroque. ... By extending and reinforcing the structural logic of the sonata form into the symphony, he contributed to the development of a more rational musical sensibility.
Romanticism (Early 1800-1850)
Romanticism
Romanticism (also known as the Romantic era) was an artistic, literary, musical and intellectual movement that originated in Europe towards the end of the 18th century, and in most areas was at its peak in the approximate period from 1800 to 1850.
Several artists and authors were also not as excited about the cold precision and elegance of Enlightenment Art and reason/logic. A new movement gained popularity a the end of the 18th century which celebrated individual feeling, emotion, and passion: romanticism.
Some of the main characteristics of Romantic literature include a focus on the writer or narrator's emotions and inner world; celebration of nature, beauty, and imagination; rejection of industrialization, organized religion, rationalism, and social convention; idealization of women, children, and rural life; inclusion.
Goethe (1749-1832)
Goethe is often considered a "Romantic" writer. Goethe's early writings, had produced "a new epoch in German literature," but by the time the German Romantic writers appeared with more romanticist ideals, by the late 1790s, Goethe had turned away from his own youthful literary enthusiasms.
Novelists like Goethe (Germany) emphasized strong artistic emotions, depicting characters dealing with love, frustration, and connecting with nature
Beethoven (1770-1827)
Goethe &
Beethoven
Beethoven was a composer of the classical period but he was also a "forerunner of the romantic period" in terms of his music style. The major elements of music include: the use of folk songs, emphasis on expression and emotions, expansion in the use of form and the expansion of harmony from tonality increased chromaticism. Beethoven is one of the most significant and influential composers of the western art music tradition. He was a ground-breaker, in all senses. He oversaw the transition of music from the Classical style, full of poise and balance, to the Romantic style, characterized by emotion and impact.
Religion Timeline
Religion
1643 –1715 - Louis XIV of France revokes the Edict of Nantes and enforces Catholicism as official state religion while forcing Huguenots out of France.
In this scenario, Louis attempts to consolidate both French and Catholic power throughout France, solely through the act of revoking the Edict of Nantes, this is a clear representation of his efforts to contributing to what is defined as an "absolute monarch" through his efforts to ban religious toleration simply on the grounds of the wish of the Catholic Church. This would further contribute to Louis method of creating a centralized France, mainly through the effort of removing those who would contradict the new French monarchy.
Continuation
1688 – James II (King of England and Ireland) is removed as monarch for both parliamentary desire for power and the fact that he is Catholic
1712 -1725 – Catherine the Great of Russia begins the separation of the Eastern Orthodox Church and the state
1715-1789 – Enlightenment ideals question and challenge religion, developing the alternative beliefs of deism and atheism, and emphasizing the separation of church and state (Voltaire)
1740 – 1786 – Frederick the Great of Prussia institutes religious toleration
1765 – 1790 – Joseph II of Austria enacts religious toleration (later removed)
1789 – 1792 – French Revolution (liberal phase) grants religious freedom and Church power in France removed in the Civil Constitution of 1791
1793-1794 – French Revolution (Reign of Terror) officially bans all religion
1801 – Concordat of 1801 established the Catholic Church as the ‘favored’ (state funds and tax breaks) church, but not the official, enforced state church (still religious freedom)
Continuation
Women &
Society
Industrial Revolution
Industrial Revolution (1750-1840) develops two new distinct classes: the Middle and Working class.
"Near the end of the 18th century, new economic ideas and wealth would begin to lay the ground for the Industrial Revolution." Before the direct emergence of factory industrialization, the putting-out system had risen to fame in the mid 18th century. The large flow of cotton arriving from slave plantations had to be distribute textile, or cloth production. Those who had been displaced or needed extra capital would be paid to weave in their homes, this system would be the first time Europeans began using raw materials from the Americas for manufacturing on a large scale. Paying families to manufacture these goods at home provided regular people with more money, and increased the living standards for Western Europeans. The Industrial Revolution, now also known as the First Industrial Revolution, was the transition to new manufacturing processes in Europe and the United States, in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840. ... The textile industry was also the first to use modern production methods. This would further increase the wealth and prosperity of multiple European nations, allowing a larger distribution of wealth and luxury between the peasantry, producing the middle-class. One of the triggers was the unusually high growth in the population which set in around the middle of the 18th century and produced a gigantic reservoir of workers. After the increase in population due to the agricultural revolution and increase in farming technology, the larger population would be readily available to work, overall benefiting the country and the citizens occupying it.
More Leisure, High-Class
Middle class women are seen as the moral examples of society, and meant to stay home and raise and educate children (the more leisure time, the higher class). Although the condition still remained unequal between sexes, women being looked upon as moral examples of society had led to a greater respect for the position in society, serving as educators for the younger children who would grow to eventually run the nation. Middle class women are seen as the moral examples of society, and meant to stay home and raise and educate children (the more leisure time, the higher class). Before the advent of industrialization, women were often tasked with traditional jobs such as making and repairing clothing. They were also commonly involved with helping manage the affairs of the farm and raising children. However, the traditional role for women began to change as the Industrial Revolution unfolded, whereas progression, as opposed to the variety of previous conflict, began to become more apparent. Women have been in the European labor force since the continent was founded. They have played an essential role in the agricultural society which dominated the initial stage of economic development. Because women still hold different jobs from men, it has been easier for employers to pay women less. Women had an extensive increase in reliance, or at least, recognized reliance, allowing citizens occupying Europe to view Women's role as equal to that of a man's. Differing authors also began to spread awareness for such issues,
Declaration of Rights of Women and Female Citizen (1791)
Olympe de Gouges criticizes lack of female rights in French Revolution (Declaration of the Rights of Women and Female Citizen). Olympre de Gouges took up the projects of the perfidious people who want to divide France. It seems the law has punished this conspirator for having forgotten the virtues that belong to her sex." In the center of a revolution to extend rights to more men, Olympe de Gouges had the courage to argue that women, too, should benefit.
The Declaration of the Rights of Women It stated that women have natural, inalienable, and sacred rights. Those rights, as well as the related duties and responsibilities to society, are outlined in the remainder of the document. ... The declaration further includes a Form for a Social Contract Between Man and Woman. As of such, this action would contribute to the increasing importance of Women European society, valuing their rights similar to that of men, whereas they played a pivotal role in the progression of the French Revolution as well as the modernization of Europe in its entirety. This was entirely due to that fact that The Declaration of Rights of Men had not mentioned women’s rights, despite their roles in the Revolution itself. This prompted some, such as Olympe de Gouges, to write the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen to point out the hypocrisy in the new French government.
Maria Theresa First Female Holy Roman Empire
Maria Theresa first female Holy Roman Empire (1777-1816), who's rule led to the War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748). Born in Vienna on 13 May 1717. Died in Vienna on 29 November 1780. Maria Theresa was the most important ruler of the age of Enlightened Absolutism and one of the most famous Habsburgs. She took over the reins of government on the death of her father Charles VI and implemented numerous enduring reforms. Like all members of the House of Habsburg, Maria Theresa was a Roman Catholic, and a devout one. She believed that religious unity was necessary for a peaceful public life and explicitly rejected the idea of religious toleration.
Catherine the Great in Russia expands Russian power, provides educational opportunities to women, and cultivates Enlightenment ideals and culture in Russia (1762-1796)
Both rulers exemplified not only the capability of women during the highly unequal era in Europe, but also the exceeding actions made in the interest of their countries. Each Queen serving in the interest of Education, religious toleration, and overall positive morality. The Enlightenment, widely regarded as beneficial for European society, had been adopted by both enlightened monarchs, allowing smaller, and un-centralized nations such as Austria and Russia to catch up to their surrounding nations despite not actively participating in the Enlightenment, proving the willingness each leader had to improve their own country, a direct contrast to that of Louis XIV's goals and how he aimed to consolidate power for himself, ruling as an absolute monarch. Known for her intelligence and ambitions to rule the Russian Empire, Catherine not only challenged the social norms of the time but also set the precedent for women in powerful positions. Catherine ruled through corruption, scandal, political reforms, and land expansion.
Joseph II begins education for boys in Austria (1765-1790)
Although Joseph II did institute education for boys in Austria, the change is positive, however, female rulers, such as Maria (his mother), as well as Catherine the Great, who each instituted education for both women and men in their nations, benefiting the country more so in the long term goal. When Maria Theresa died in 1780, Joseph became the absolute ruler of the Habsburg domains and enacted many reforms that his mother had refused to consider. During his reign, Joseph put forth an average of 690 decrees a year. Joseph was considered an "enlightened despot," and his reforms were open-minded, to a point.
Woman's societal role had been minimized throughout this enactment, preventing them from acquiring a widespread formal education as Joseph II had enlisted for all boys. The key-word in this phrase would be "compulsory," whereas, although Maria had educational opportunities for each gender, it hadn't been required, and was incomparable to that of the male gender, who had been conditioned to receive a more widespread education, this would eventually resolve into a more involved issue as industrialization grew in importance along with the role of both men and women throughout Europe.
Jane Austen – Novel Writer
Austen, born on December 16, 1775, who died on July 18, 1817, at 41, is known for her six completed novels, among them the highly adapted Pride and Prejudice and Sense and Sensibility. Austen's writing stands out for its comedy, self-awareness and realistic, detailed portrayals of characters and their relationships. She would be predominant in the women's suffrage and rights movement, producing emphasis around the intellect of men and establishing herself as a key figure in European literature.
However, she would post anonymously due to gender and socioeconomic class considerations were probably what kept her anonymous. It wasn't considered "ladylike" for a woman to publish her work for money at that time. Jane Austen has made a tremendous impact on society and the world. Through her novels, she taught everyone the real meaning of love. For her, real love was focusing on the qualities of the person not their riches and wealth. Austen wrote six complete novels and a few short novels when she was young. Austen would overall break social boundaries surrounding in her lifetime, openly debating against those who would insult or represent a lack of progression surrounding gender. Austen's writing stands out for its comedy, self-awareness and realistic, detailed portrayals of characters and their relationships.
De-emphasis on Religion Resulted in More Premarital Sex and Illegitimate Births (1750s-1830s)
The de-emphasis on religion that resulted in more premarital sex already proved more beneficial to women's societal role, this would, in the long-term, allow the population to grow at an exponential rate, resulting in a greater economy, more technological developments, and financial prosperity. Although followers of Christian-based religions may have doubted this practice, it did however, women were able to openly have children, at-least more so than before, without concerning themselves over the previous consequences relating to religion.
Romanticism Resulted in Marriage for Love, and Marriage Ages Tended to be Later
This correlates to the previous, whereas both men and women were not entitled nor forced to marry for solely political or financial reasons, but rather, out of emotion and love, once again, giving men, and especially women a larger role in the matter. Although this had halted the population's exponential growth, it allowed overall enjoyment and contributed to the increase in leisurely lifestyles with materialistic items. Both men and women were able to surpass previous expectations, producing more choice in the matter considering arranged marriages, In the 1800s, women were expected to marry and have children, if they did not do that, they were seen by the society like if they were different, but in a bad way. ... The idea was that upper middle class women had to stay dependent of a man; first as a daughter and then as a wife, it was still apparent that women were expected to fulfill expected roles, however, gradual chnages were made as European society progressed.
Birth control began to be used (infanticide, killing nurses) (1750-1830)
This widely controversial topic was currently more so than in its current state. However, the fact that these institutions were readily available proved to be a major progression in the rights of women and their societal roles. Although once expected solely dedicate themselves to raising children, were given the opportunity to take an alternate route, allowing themselves to pursue other potential meaningful dedications, such as careers. Highly, anti-christian at the time, it was apparent that modern technology served in the interests of women, rather than solely men or religion.
The mass influx of former peasants led to overcrowding, tenement housing, crime, pick-pocketing disease, and increased the amount of orphans and prostitutes
This leads into the discussion of birth prevention, whereas in some cases, an ever-growing population is not necessary for the constant improvement for human society. As seen in the example above, rural cities had faced extreme poverty and issues relating to human fundamentals, crime and poverty were widespread despite improving access to food, raw materials, and products, allowing an improvement in overall conditions. However, due to the industrial revolution, the continuation of urbanization led to a multitude of problems. Societal issues were a result of lack of preparation for the movements at hand, leading to a multitude of issues surrounding humanity in correlation to technological advances.
Children, working separately from parents, tended to leave at younger ages after the I.R.
The ideology behind the new trend in this lifestyle began to revolutionize and contribute to the industrialization period in Europe, whereas children were no longer completely dependent on their parents, allowing their economy to grow sooner rather than later. However, similarly, the separation from their parents would result in mass urbanization, which, without proper preparation, led to the less than preferable cities. During the late 18th century, the Enlightenment quest for natural scientists to categorize all knowledge expanded beyond Europe itself. There were many pros and cons relevant to this era, however, the concentration of poor in cities led to a greater awareness of poverty, and prostitution as social problems, and new laws were passed in response to rapidly growing urban poverty, crime, and prostitution.
The need for police and local authorities vastly expanded, and were developed later
This created the need for a city and county police forces as crime & population grew too fast for most cities to handle. To prevent such conditions, the following acts were passed to prevent the growing scenario. The New Poor Law in 1834 formed Poor Law Unions and the building of workhouses in each union for the giving of poor relief that was paid for by a ‘poor rate’ tax on the property-owning middle classes. The Contagious Diseases Acts were passed in 1864 which allowed police officers to arrest women suspected of being
prostitutes in certain ports and army towns; the women were then subjected to compulsory checks for venereal disease. All of which contributed to the effort to withhold the terrible conditions that resulted in mass migration to cities, and would eventually lead to the improvement of European society along with the increase in wage as well as labor.
Many opposed living in cities as alienating
Alienating would clearly result in lack of fundamental human conditions, with longer labor hours, a small wage, and less than adequate living spaces. However, this did not come without its positives, many left to urbanize into modern cities with a leisurely life in mind, although conditions were terrible, there were many who lived the lives of nobility, soon becoming what was known as the middle-class. If a woman was declared to be infected, she would be confined in what was known as a lock hospital (hospital dedicated to treating sexually-transmitted diseases) until she recovered or her sentence finished. This isn't to say that women had still faced a number of social restrictions without proper evidence, sexism was still very much apparent, but the importance of women in society had become more recognized. Between 1880 and 1890, almost 40 percent of the townships in the United States lost population because of migration. Industrial expansion and population growth radically changed the face of the nation's cities. Noise, traffic jams, slums, air pollution, and sanitation and health problems became commonplace.
Middle class families dedicated more time and care to child raising
Due to the increase in free-time, more emphasis had been placed upon the children of society, as they would be those would eventually run the country, especially during the Industrial revolution where dependence and the people were extremely important. The Capitalist society that Adam Smith had produced would contribute to this new-found educational importance, as the people directly impacted the social and economical aspects of the nation,
Middle class families spent leisure time at coffeehouses, theaters, and opera houses
This would provide a complete opposal to previous societal issues, including the arisal what had been defined as peasantry, the middle-class would receive this title through the process of industrialization, whereas leisure activities had become more prominent as opposed to previous conditions, where is revolved around survival and simply necessary activities. It was the liberal, educated middle class who demanded the end of aristocratic privileges and encouraged national unity. e. They were inspired by the doctrine and ideas of liberalism and demanded government based on the consent, and stood for freedom and equality for all, where appearance and importance in their government had become more prominent.
Novel reading became popular, as well as the desire self-reflection and private rooms (boudoirs)
"Homes became new venues for leisure activities, such as novel reading and private emotion and reflection." This, although seemingly insignificant in correlation to a leisurely activity, would actually have profound effects on European society, guiding the new middle-class with positive morals, allowing literacy to become the norm. Novels, novellas, and short stories would become extremely popular in the late eighteenth and the early nineteenth centuries because of the following reasons: There were many new innovations in printing technology reduced the prices of novels. This led to the expansion of reading public.
Houses began to be decorated as disposable income was more common, with dishes, curtains, etc.
Along with disposable income came a more leisure-based life style for many Europeans. This would end up resulting in beneficial aspects for the economy, especially that of a capitalist-based one, whereas newer businesses, based on both wants and needs of Europeans would begin to amass with he majority of Europeans. Make-up, mirrors, wigs, and cosmetics became popular, and symbols of wealth and power in the 18th century, therefore, representing the increase in commercial wealth, families dedicated more space, resulting in a larger contribution to the provided jobs, producing more resources to children (tutors), child-rearing and private comforts.
Compulsory education begins in Prussia in 1794
Prussia was among the first countries in the world to introduce tax-funded and generally compulsory primary education. .Whereas, Frederick the Great also formalized further educational stages, the highest stage the gymnasium (state-funded secondary school), which served as a university-preparatory school. Before the 1800s, education was not free and poor children got what education they could in Dame schools or Sunday Schools. Prussia enacting this would represent the emphasis on education for its citizens, benefiting the nation in the long term, and exemplifying the importance governments/monarchs should have in their society.