Argumentation (ENC 1102)

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Informal Logic

Informal logic is the kind of logic we will be discussing and using in this class. As The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy states, "Informal logic is the attempt to build a logic suited to purpose." (Think: the rhetorical situation!) The application of logic is important to building our own arguments as well as evaluating those of others. If we don't develop good logic skills, it's easy for us to be at the mercy of bad reasoning...and it's easier for us to be manipulated by deceivers.

Yes, It's that Time...Let's Think about the Rhetorical Appeals!

Inductive Arguments

Conclusions and Premises

The Core Questions

Introducing...kairos! Kairos, literally translated, means the "supreme moment." Although it is not part of the rhetorical triangle (ethos, pathos, logos), it is still important when constructing a convincing argument. An appeal to kairos is an appeal to appropriate timing; in other words, WHEN the writer presents their argument and the overall timing of the subject matter itself.

Inductive arguments are those whose conclusion is supposed to follow from its premises with a high level of probability: this is the kind of argument you make on a day-to-day basis.

At the heart of every argument are questions. The following are the main questions used in academic and professional writing:

1. What do you want me to do or think?

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2. Why should I do or think that?

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Inductive arguments cannot guarantee the truth of the conclusion, as there will always be counterarguments, but this does not mean they're "bad." Rather, inductive arguments are measured by degrees of probability and plausability and tested on the grounds of reliability and strength.

3. How do I know that what you say is true?

The root notion of an argument is that it convinces us something is true. What we are being convinced of is the conclusion. A reason for this conclusion is called a premise. Both premises and conclusions are statements, a type of sentence that can be true or false and corresponds to the grammatical category of a declarative sentence.

What Else Is Argumentation NOT?

4. Why should I accept the reasons that support your claim?

5. What about this other fact, idea, or consideration?

6. How should you present your argument?

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What about Logic?

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To Put It All Together...

Like opinions, arguments are also often commonly mistaken for statements of fact. This happens because many think opinions/arguments are "bad" while facts are "good." (A false dichotomy which ultimately does no one good.)

It should go without saying that logic is important for successful argumentation. In its most basic sense, logic is the study of how ideas reasonably fit together. As a dedicated field of study, logic primarily belongs to math, philosophy, and computer science: we won't be looking at formal logic like this, which involves syllogisms, proofs, and truth tables, among other methods.

The answer to 1 is your CONCLUSION.

The answer to 2 is your PREMISE.

When identifying arguments, it's important to look for premise indicators and conclusion indicators. These are key words or phrases that indicate whether a claim exists that a writer justifies by reasons.

The answer to 3 is your SUPPORT.

The answer to 4 is your WARRANT.

In order to not confuse argument with fact, remember that arguments must be ARGUABLE, in this context meaning they have a range of possible answers, angles, or perspectives. Facts, on the other hand, are not arguable; they are absolutely valid statements that can be proven using objective data (e.g., 2+2 = 4).

The answer to 5 is your ACKNOWLEDGMENT/RESPONSE to COUNTERARGUMENTS.

The answer to 6 is your POINT OF VIEW, ORGANIZATION, and TONE.

What Constitutes Support?

Effective argumentation is a skill that takes time and practice to master; you have to understand the vocabulary of argument as well as how to use rhetoric in order to successfully convince others of what you have to say!

It's important to use the right kind of evidence, to use it effectively, and to have an appropriate amount of it.

Make sure your support is relevant. Different fields of study involve types of evidence based on relevance to those fields.

Ultimately, becoming a better arguer will help you not only academically, but also professionally and personally.

Make sure your support is logical. It should be clear how the parts of your argument fit together.

Make sure your support is sufficient. One or two pieces of evidence--or multiple pieces of evidence not developed fully--will not be enough to prove your argument.

What Argumentation Is NOT

Argumentation is NOT a "fight."

Argumentation is NOT necessarily "controversial."

Even though we use the term "argument" to refer to the verbal battles we may have with others, this is an incorrect, reductive way to view argumentation.

It is also reductive to think arguments can only be about controversial topics. Arguments come in all different forms, some subtle and some not-so-subtle.

Argument is NOT opinion: arguments have rules, opinions do not.

Argument is NOT opinion: arguments have support, opinions do not.

What Is the Warrant?

Another important distinction is that arguments require support. If you make a claim and then stop, as if the claim were enough to demonstrate its "truthfulness," then all you've done is assert an opinion. Support for arguments must be reasonable, relevant, and sufficient.

Although arguments and opinions often sound the same, one important distinction between the two is that arguments have to be reasonable, whereas opinions have no rules. One must consider whether the argument is valid, sound, and logical--whether it is worth making.

Argumentation

Evidence is NOT self-evident!

After introducing evidence into your writing, you must demonstrate WHY and HOW this evidence supports your argument: this connection is your warrant. What turns a fact or piece of information into evidence is the connection it has with the larger claim. While your audience might have certain expectations regarding your evidence, don't make assumptions: they're not mind readers!

Professor Henning, ENC 1102

What Is an Argument?

Rhetorical Arguments

Every day we make arguments; as The Little Seagull states, "Everything we say or do presents some kind of argument, takes some kind of position" (53). Quite simply, when you make a claim and then support the claim with reasons, you are making an argument.

Rhetorical arguments are one of the two main models of argument found in academic or professional life. Rhetorical argumentation focuses on how to create an argument that convinces and persuades effectively. Because this form of argument requires an understanding of rhetoric, one must think broadly about the vocabulary of argument and the application of logic.

Academic Arguments

The Importance of Counterarguments

Academic arguments, on the other hand, are used to discuss and evaluate ideas, usually within a professional field of study, in order to ultimately convince others of those ideas. In this type of argument, interpretation and research play crucial roles.

Tests of Reliability and Strength

What's the Difference?

The test of reliability examines an inductive argument's reason, or its internal logic. One cannot make just any claim, especially if it doesn't have a reliable basis. More reliable arguments are those that have a more solid basis in reason.

Rhetorical and academic arguments share a lot of overlap. In order to create a convincing argument, one must always think about rhetoric; in order to support one's points, one must always think about the kind of evidence they're using. Thus, in this class, we will refer to "argument" broadly as a hybrid of the two types.

The test of strength, like the test of reliability, is measured by degree. Strength looks at how much data and how many reasons a conclusion has. The more data and reasons, the stronger the argument.

All arguments are multi-sided. The other sides of the issue you're arguing are the counterarguments. Don't shy away from them! Use them, instead, to build your case. It is smart to anticipate possible objections and challenges to your argument, as it will ultimately make your argument stronger.