Settler Colonialism in southern Arizona

U.S government

Ulysses S. Grant

18th U.S. President

The peace policy was created after the U.S. reached the pacific ocean and could no longer push the Natives westward. president grant created the peace policy to deal with the Natives more humanely. He created reservations and forced the natives to move onto these reservations. These reservations were controlled by religious leaders who taught the Natives Christianity, English, and agriculture. the ultimate aim of these reservations was to make Native culture forgotten. any natives who didn't move onto the reservations were hunted by the military and U.S. citizens. moving them onto reservations created more land for colonization and relieved the U.S. of violence while colonizing this new land. Policymakers believed that with the proper protection, assistance, and Christian education, all Indian people could adopt white American customs and values and assimilate into U.S. society. Policymakers believed that most Indians wanted to live on the reservations and were waiting for the government to fulfill its promises to help them live “like the white man.”

U.S. military struggled to control the Apache because of their small groups. this violence created the Apache constantly ran from the U.S. military. they weren't able to grow their crops without the U.S. military catching up to them and destroying everything. Apache believed they could no longer afford to be in this war. The U.S. created a camp grant on the "blue water pool" which was where the black rocks people lived, a western apache group. the Apache concluded that they were only able to achieve peace by creating amends with the U.S. military at the blue water pool.

O'odham

“He [I’itoi, an O’odham cultural hero] put power between the Apaches and the [O’odham], so that when the Apaches were victorious they acquired the power; and when the [O’odham] won, in turn they acquired power. Older Brother said, ‘I didn’t think this enmity [hostility] would come between these tribes but since it has happened, it has happened. Let it be so.”

The Apache took every chance to raid the O'odham people. this resulted in the O'odham fighting back believing they had the right to. War became an inescapable part of their lives. O'odham often allied themselves to help aid themselves in the war, allied themselves with spanish and U.S. troops they received rations, livestock, and other goods for killing Apache. this was a phenomenal benefit to the O'odham because they were already filled with rage by the apache raids so for them to get revenge and get paid for it was just what they wanted. One big problem with this agreement was that the U.S. could not tell the difference between the 2 groups and assumed they were betrayed when they were raided by apache. An important thing was that they went to war for spiritual reasons as well. they believed the winner of the war received the spiritual powers and constantly went to war over this. O'odham wasted no opportunity to attack Apache, believing that they would be awarded by the U.S. for this.

U.S Settlers

EDITORIAL IN THE WEEKLY ARIZONA MINER, JULY 1871

“This is our country;—not [the Apaches’]. American blood and treasure secured it from Mexico.... [T]he American people cannot now do otherwise than help us to fight the great battle of civilization; to overthrow the barbarians and teach them that white supremacy, even in Arizona, is decreed of God.”

U.S. settlers believed that the Apache would always be hostile. They viewed the Apache as “savage,” “barbaric” and “uncivilized’—racist terms for people they viewed as inferior. many believed that the increase in violence meant that the U.S. had to respond more harsher. they believed that Apache had a goal to kill all of the white settlers. U.S. settlers were at peace with the O'odham people and viewed them as welcoming, quiet, and tranquil. The U.S. settlers were close with Mexican americans but were also very skeptical of them because of the knowledge they had of the Apache. they also were highly racist towards the Mexican americans. they also held views towards their government, believing they were prioritizing helping Indians rather than protecting their citizens. The settlers believed that the reservations that the U.S. created for natives provided a safe territory for the Apache who continued to attack.

Spanish

Spanish settlers had very opposite relationships with the Native groups. they viewed the O'odham people as allies, calm, and very welcoming. Apache on the other hand were viewed as hostile and aggressive. Apache deserved these terms, as they were raiding and taking captives from the Spanish settlements. The spanish would fight back and take captives of their own. keeping the Apache contained was very difficult for the spanish as the apache lived in the mountains, and living in mountains created a sort of safety for the Apache. Apache raided the Spanish because they had new resources and goods that apache was not able to access on their own. Raiding became a lifestyle for the Apache and raided these spanish settlements very often. Apache didn't view this as stealing from the spanish as they didn't view animals as property. Apache tried not to scare off the Spanish when they did raid them. Spanish very furious and led out attacks to kill these Apache, they managed to kill 700 in 7 years. they would destroy apache villages and food sources creating a stronger urge to raid as they had no food. Apache began to create peace establishments with the spanish and if were successful they would move closer to the spanish territories. the government began to provide weekly rations of grains, meat, sugar, and tobacco to peaceful apache bands. the apache would give themselves military support and fight the hostile apache bands.

Mexican Americans

Mexican American conflict with Apache went back generations. Since the 17th century, the Apache had stolen livestock and destroyed the property of the settlers living in this region. this conflict was very personal as many of them lost family in the apache raids. the spanish and Mexican groups began to lead military campaigns, as they believed the only way to deal with Apache was with violence. The Mexican Americans fought them for so long that they were able to tell the Apache group by their faces or names. Sometimes the Mexican americans had personal knowledge of the apache which helped them attack them. As U.S. settlements had grown, racism and discrimination had also grown against Mexican Americans. Although the U.S. Army benefited from the knowledge that Mexican American trackers had of the Apache, other settlers viewed Mexican Americans with suspicion for their intimate knowledge of this enemy. Mexican Americans attacked Apache settlements killing 144 Apache (mostly kids and women). The men went to go prepare for a religious ceremony and were not present at the attack. they also took about 29 Apache children as captives. they were described as Heroes by the press for this attack they led.

Raiding

Raiding

The Apache had little contact with the spanish people due to their living in the mountains. little contact led to them receiving fewer supplies and goods. to cope with this they started to raid the spanish settlements. they created this plan of leaving just enough supplies for them to restock so apache could raid them again. they were very interested in horses that the spanish held. the spanish of course fought back with the apache over this. Apache went to war with the spanish over a dead community member. Raiding became a lifestyle for the Apache. Apache would create peace with certain villages and raid villages they were not peaceful with and take the supplies they stole and sold them to the peaceful villages. After the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (signed to end the war between the U.S and mexico, surrendered half of Mexico's territory to the U.S. for 15 million) the apache started to jump the border raid the Mexican americans and return back to their side of the border being safe from the Mexican americans. the U.S. was responsible to maintain these raids from over the border and as well the U.S. was not allowed to purchase the stolen goods.

Cultural misunderstanding

cultural

Misunderstanding

Apache raided for revenge on a fallen member of their tribes, or for supplies and warfare. Apache would take U.S. citizens as captives and in return the U.S. would capture a random Apache group assuming they were under the same leader. Apache would adopt the captives into their tribes but the U.S. would usually just kill them which really surprised the Apache

territory

Apache lived in southern Arizona, close to the O'odham and spanish. the apache lived in the mountains, making them extremely hard to contain. Living in these terrains made it easier to raid and achieve safety. living in these mountains they usually kept small communities which were beneficial for them as they were less vulnerable to disease.

Territory