THE MONGOL EMPIRE

Genghis Khan (Temujin)

Temujin was born in 1162 to the Mongol clans. He was able to create alliances between the different khans in the region by establishing friendships. Through his focus on power building, and his well known ruthlessness, Temujin was elected khan of the Mongolian kingdom by the fellow clan chiefs and leaders. He received the title Genghis Khan, which translates to "ruler of all", and formed the Mongol Empire.

The Decline of the Golden Horde and the Birth of Russia

The Mongols had the Russian city-states send tribute, but they did not occupy Russia, since they did not want to live in the forest. This allowed the Russian cities, along with parts of Eastern Europe, to form a coalition against the Mongols. Led by Moscow, they defeated the Golden Horde in 1380, which decreased Mongol influence, and by the mid-16th century, they defeated most of the Mongols' descendants. Although the city-states united, their society and culture was vastly different from the rest of Europe due to them being estranged from the continent due to Mongol control. This led Russia to develop a more 'Russian' culture.

The Impact of the Golden Horde

The Mongols had caused a lot of damage in Russia. They plundered cities and killed most, if not all of the residents. For example, in the invasion of the Russian city of Kozelsk in 1237, a year after the formation of Batu's army, the Golden Horde went through the city, destroying it, raping the city's women, and leaving no survivors. They exploited the cities for wealth, and they caused instability and unease all across Europe during their invasions and battles with cities. However, the Golden Horde did cause some good in Eastern Europe. They expanded the Silk Road trade into Europe, and they did not tax traders. They improved roads, and they provided protection in trading routes all throughout their empires, even after they broke apart into the four khanates.

Islam in the Ilkhanate

Islam, which was already the major religion of Perisa and the Middle East, was able to spread due to the invasion of the Mongols, and the establishment of the Ilkhanate. Once the Ilkhanate was established, the Mongols settled in the region, and ended up adopting Islam. Thanks to the improvement and increased use of trade routes such as the Silk Roads, Islam spread from the Ilkhanate through these trade routes, and through the Mongols themselves. Along with the spread of Islam came the spread of goods, innovations, and ideas. All of the cultural and technological exchange between different parts of Asia during the period of the four khanates led to the third golden age of the Silk Roads. On the other hand, the adoption of Islam by the Mongols of the Ilkhanate turned them from tolerating all religion to discriminating against Christians and Jews. In addition, because of the increased Muslim influence in Asia brought by the Ilkhanate, Christianity became less popular throughout the continent.

Destruction and Displacement

When the Mongols first invaded Persia and the Middle East, they brutally swept through cities and towns. They plundered and destroyed Baghdad, and they destroyed the House of Wisdom, along with centuries of Muslim literature and history. They killed the caliph, as well as up to 2 million residents, taking control of the city and the entire region. Once the Ilkhanate was established and the Mongols were converted to Islam, they supported massacares against Christians and Jews.

Kublai Khan

Kublai was a grandson of Genghis Khan, and he set his sights on China. He received the name Kublai Khan in 1260, and successfully invaded the Song Dynasty in 1271. After taking over China, he rebuilt the capital that was destroyed by earlier Mongols, and he named it Dadu, the Yuan Dynasty's capital. Kublai Khan was skilled at governance, and established a policy of religious tolerance in order to appeal to more people. The native Chinese accepted the Yuan Dynasty during Kublai Khan's lifetime, and it was after he died that Chinese perspective on the Dynasty changed, mostly due to the actions of the Kublai's successors.

Society and Culture in the Yuan Dynasty

After creating the Yuan Dynasty, Kubali Khan decided to follow in his grandfather's footsteps and create a policy of religious tolerance within China. Religiously oppressed groups, such as Buddhists and Daoists, as well as people adhering to Western religions, such as Christians, Muslims, and Jews, all supported the policy, which increased their loyalty towards the Dynasty. The Mongols' interest in Tibetan Buddhism helped spread the religion throughout the Dynasty. However, the native Chinese were not treated fairly under the Yuan Dynasty. They hired non-Chinese for government positions, and they promoted Buddhism and Daoism, which threatened the Confucious gentry class. These, along with other restrictions, eventually led to the revolt of the native Chinese, and the overthrowing of the Yuan Dynasty in 1368.

Disease and Displacement

The bubonic plague, also known as the Black Death, originated in China during the Yuan Dynasty. It spread through trade routes, until eventually reaching Europe during the 14th century. This disease caused massive death in medieval Europe, killing up to 1/3 of the continent's population.

The Mongols were not great political planners, so they moved people, specifically from Persia, the Middle East, and China, throughout their empire. Although Chinese did not hold political power in the Yuan Dynasty due to discrimination, political organizers and other people with specialized skills, such as artisans, doctors, and record keepers, were moved across the khanates.

Trade in the Yuan Dynasty

The Mongols greatly improved trade in China. Scientific ideas and innovations from the Ilkhanate came to China, and Chinese paper and other goods were transported across Eurasia. The Silk Roads were used again, and they were much safer and more organized due to the Mongols' road and guard systems. Trade also increased the cultural exchange throughout the khanates, as people with specialized skills, especially political organizers, were displaced by the Mongols. Trade also brought some negatives. The people who were displaced most likely did not have a choice, and diseases, such as the bubonic plague, spread through trade routes.

Short-Term: The Bad

The Mongolian invasion of Asia were a very unstable and chaotic time. The Mongols ruthlessly conquered cities and city-states, usually destroying or annexing them. Up to 40 million people died throughout the Mongols' occupation of Asia, which was 11% of the world's population at the time. The Mongols destroyed many important cities, and places. They destroyed the House of Wisdom in Baghdad, which erased centuries of Islam study and history. They forced people in all of the khanates to pay tribute to the Mongols, and they plundered cities during their invasions. These waves of destruction, especially in the Golden Horde, changed European perception of the Mongols. The Mongols also discriminated against many groups, such as native Chinese in the Yuan Dynasty, and Christians and Jews in the Ilkhanate. They warranted the genocide of Christians and Jews in Persia, which reduced the population of these religious groups throughout the continent. The Mongols displaced millions of people, and forced them to apply their skills in places far away from their home. Political organizers were moved across Asia to different parts of the Empire where they could be of use. Due to all of this movement of people and goods throughout trading routes, the bubonic plague spread throughout the world. It hit Europe and the Ilkhanate extremely hard, killing 1/3 of Europe's population, and being one of the main causes of the collapse of the Ilkhanate. During the Mongols' takeover of Asia, many people, places, and things were harmed. However, the long-term effects of these occupations led to a period of prosperity in Asia, and throughout the world.

Long-Term: The Good

The effects of Mongol rule were substantially more beneficial long-term via the Silk Roads, Islam, and Tibetan Buddhism. The Mongols’ advanced Silk Road trade measures allowed for other trade routes to become widely used in future generations while delivering an era of prosperity along the Silk Roads. The Mongols’ improved road systems, and their guard system helped prevent bandits along the Silk Roads, which enabled different groups of people to transfer goods, ideas, beliefs, and inventions more easily. The cultural exchange brought upon by the interconnectedness of the Mongol Empire helped different cultures and groups of people become exposed to one another, and their unity as an Empire brought people from around their territory together. Their incorporation and conversions to Islam aided in the spread of Islamic culture as well as delving into medicinal and astronomical sciences, their discoveries contributing to what we now know today. While Tibetan Buddhism isn’t too widely dispersed currently, the present-day religion thrives as a result of China and the Mongols’ interest in it. The Mongols helped improve the relationships between different parts of Asia, they improved trade between different regions across Eurasia, and they contributed in the spread of religion and ideas.