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The Science of Psychology
What actually is Psychology?
- What does it investigate?
- What does this discipline encompass?
- What are the different areas of study?
- What is the purpose?
Psychology:
Psychology:
- The scientific study of behavior & mental process
- Considered a science due to the need for objectivity and the use of the scientific method
Behavior:
The outward or overt actions and reactions
Anything we do that can be measured including talking, facial expressions, movement, and all other outward actions and reactions
It also includes any interactions we have with people, places, or things
Mental Process:
The internal, covert activity of our minds
This refers to all the internal activity going on in our minds like thinking, feeling, and remembering
Psychology as a Science
Ultimately trying to use data/ observation, etc. to proves certain theories regarding why we think and behave in certain ways
- Utilizes Scientific Method
- Prevent possible biases from leading to faulty observations
- Precise and careful measurement necessary
Psychology
FOUR Big Goals
Psychology
1. Description
2. Explanation
3. Prediction
4. Control
Description
Description
Observing a behavior & noting:
- What is happening?
- When is it happening?
- To whom is it happening
- Where is it happening?
Explanation
Determining what variables create a behavior/ mental process
- Helps to constuct a THEORY
Theory:
Theory:
General explanation of a set of observations or facts
Possible elaboration on why behavior/ process is happening
Prediction
Hypothesizing what may happen in the future
Prediction
Will the behavior happen again?
Control
Being able to cause change or modification to a behavior
Such as...changing an undesirable behavior to desirable one
Control
WHY Study Psychology?
What are some possible benefits to studying this field for you?
Brainstorm w/ a partner!
A few reasons...
A few reasons...
- Improved critical thinking
- Better understanding of memory
- Knowledge of leadership characteristics
- Reducing bias/ prejudice
- Better understanding of human development
- Greater insight into mental illness
- Psych is fascinating
- You're going to take an intro to psych class in college and this will help greatly!!!
- Help in understanding yourself and other
- Higher understanding of the mind
- Higher understanding of why certain behaviors occur
- Improve communication skills
- Develop sound analytical skills through the application of scientific method
- Helps in reading people
- Persuasion
You will be given an envelope.
With your tab...
You will be given an envelope.
With your table, pair up the people in regards to who belongs together.
Be prepared to defend your pairs.
Answer the following questions regarding this activity:
- What method did your group take to create the pairs?
- How would you describe your behaviors as a group while trying to make the pairs?
- Did you read the descriptions before you began?
- Was it easy to make matches?
- How many times did you change your mind?
- How would you explain the method used to create the pairs? What characteristics were you the most concerned with?
- Could your explanation/ method allow you to recreate this pairing activity in the real world? Explain.
- HOW does this activity relate to what we discussed in class today?
The Beginnings of Psychology
Approaches, People, Theories, etc.
How old is the field of Psychology? How long has it been around?
How old is the field of Psychology? How long has ...
History of the Field
History of the Field
- Psychology is a relatively new field in science, under 200 years old
- Philosophers had been asking questions about the soul, body & mind
- Plato, Aristotle, Descartes
- Highlighted the connection between the soul and the body
- Physiologists used science to study the body and brain
- Fechner, Helmholtz
- Early perception experiments
- Psychology began by using science to study the mind
- Power players began to emerge with theories to explain behavior & the mind...
Early Psychologists Jigsaw
Early Psychologists Jigsaw
Each group will be assigned an early psychologist!
Using the internet & your textbook, conduct research on your assigned psychologist
What to look for:
- Country of Origin
- Brief background info
- Psychological ideology (what they believed)
- Major achievements in the field ( their legacy)
- Major awards/ recognitions/ accomplishments
*Each person should take down notes on your assigned psychologist! You will responsible for sharing this info when we shift groups.
Structuralism
Structuralism - focused on structure or basic elements of the mind. -Thoughts, experiences, emotions, memories, etc.
- Wilhelm Wundt’s psychology laboratory
-Germany in 1879
- Wanted to use scientific methods to study the human mind
- He made the first attempt to bring objectivity & measurement to this area of study
- Developed objective introspection – process of objectively examining and measuring one’s thoughts and mental activities.
Edward Titchener
- Wundt’s student; brought structuralism to America
- He believed that introspection could also be applied to human thoughts as well as physical sensations
- Dominant force in early days
- Focused on the structure of the mind
- Experiences could be broken down into individual emotions & sensations
- Wundt focused on physical world/ sensations while Titchener focused on thoughts in addition to physical
Margaret Washburn
-Titchener’s student; first woman to earn a Ph.D. in psychology.
Margaret Washburn
Functionalism
- Functionalism - how the mind allows people to adapt, live, work, and play.
- Proposed by William James.
- Observed people in natural settings
- His idea of functionalism was greatly influences by Darwin's ideas on natural selection
- He believed that the same idea could be applied to behavioral traits
- The strong physical & behavioral traits are passed on to our offspring
- Influenced the modern fields of:
Educational psychology
Evolutionary psychology
Industrial/organizational psychology
G. Stanley Hall
- Earned the first Ph.D in the study of Psychology
-Established the first psychology lab in America
-Founded the American Psychological Association (APA)
-Was the first President of the APA
Cognitive Psychology
- Began as Gestalt Psychology
- Gestalt – “good figure” psychology.
- Started with Wertheimer, who studied sensation and perception.
- Gestalt ideas are now part of the study of cognitive psychology, a field focusing not only on perception but also on learning, memory, thought processes, and problem solving.
- "An organized whole"- focus on patterns
Cognitive Psychology Today...
Cognitive Psychology Today...
Deals with:
- how the mind processes information
- how people think
- how people remember, store, & utilize information
- problem solving
- perception
- intelligence
- language
- learning
Cognitive Neuroscience
- Looks at the brain's activity while engaged in mental processes
- Uses biology to understand changes in the brain & nervous system
Psychoanalysis
- Psychoanalysis - the theory and therapy based on the work of Sigmund Freud.
- Freud’s patients suffered from nervous disorders with no found physical cause.
- Freud proposed that there is an unconscious (unaware) mind into which we push, or repress, all of our threatening urges and desires.
- believed that these repressed urges, in trying to surface, created nervous disorders.
- Freud stressed the importance of early childhood experiences.
Psychoanalysis
Many ideas are outdated, but many of his theories are still used today in psychotherapy
Behaviorism
- Behaviorism - the science of behavior that focuses on observable behavior only.
- Must be directly seen and measured.
- Proposed by John B. Watson.
- Based much from work of Ivan Pavlov who demonstrated that a reflex could be conditioned (learned).
-Watson believed that all behaviors including phobias were learned.
- Case of “Little Albert” – taught to fear a white rat.
"Little Albert" Experiment
"Little Albert" Experiment
What are the ethical implications of an experiment like this?
Is it ok to experiment in this way on a child?
What are the potential consequences of such an experiment?
Would an experiment like this happen today?
Generate a response to these questions in your notebooks.
Modern Psychological Approaches
- Many theories used, one can not explain all aspects of behavior and mental process
- 6 commonly used perspectives + two holdovers
- Each perspective allows us to understand a different aspect of human behavior and mental processes
Psychodynamic Perspective
Psychodynamic Perspective
Psychodynamic perspective - modern version of psychoanalysis.
- More focused on the development of a sense of self and the discovery of motivations behind a person’s behavior other than sexual motivations
- focus is on the unconscious mind & its influence over conscious behavior
- early childhood experiences utilized
Behavioral Perspective
Behavioral Perspective
- Behaviorism is a dated perspective that is still utilized & influential
- B.F. Skinner expanded perspective via discovery of operant conditioning
- Behavioral responses (operants) that are followed by positive consequences are strengthened or reinforced
- Positive & negative reinforcement stem from this perspective
Humanistic Perspective
- Humanistic perspective
- Owes far more to the early roots of psychology in the field of philosophy.
- Humanists held the view that people have free will, the freedom to choose their own destiny.
- Early founders:
Abraham Maslow
Carl Rogers
- Emphasized the human potential, the ability of each person to become the best person he or she could be.
- Self-actualization - achieving one’s full potential or actual self.
Sociocultural
Sociocultural
- Combination of social psychology & cultural psychology
- Both deal with the effect others have on ones behavior, emotions, thoughts, etc.
- Individually & larger groups
- Reminds people that how they behave & think is often influenced by who you are with, your environment, fads, social norms, etc.
Biopsychological Perspective
Biopsychological Perspective
- The study of the biological bases of behavior and mental processes
- Study both animals & humans
- Believes that all behavior (human & animal) is a direct result of events in the body
- Certain behavior traits & mental events can be attributed to hormones, heredity, chemicals in the brain, tumors, etc.
Now to try it all out...
Celebrity Analysis
Now to try it all out...
Choose a scandalous celebrity
Explain his or her behavior from each of the psychological perspectives we went over today.
Think of one particularly scandalous behavior to analyze. Be sure to apply your knowledge of the perspectives and to clarify how each perspective would explain this behavior
The Subfields of Psychology
- Psychiatrist - a medical doctor who has specialized in the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders.
- Psychoanalyst - either a psychiatrist or a psychologist who has special training in the theories of Sigmund Freud and his method of psychoanalysis.
- Psychiatric social worker - a social worker with some training in therapy methods who focuses on the environmental conditions that can have an impact on mental disorders, such as poverty, overcrowding, stress, and drug abuse.
- Psychologist - a professional with an academic degree and specialized training in one or more areas of psychology.
Can do counseling, teaching, and research and may specialize in any one of a large number of areas within psychology.
- Areas of specialization in psychology include clinical, counseling, developmental, social, and personality, among others.
Psychology Career Fair
Psychology Career Fair
- Each group will be assigned a SUBFIELD
- Research the specifications/ career opportunities available in this subfield
- CREATE a LARGE-SCALE Brochure detailing the skills needed and career opportunities that could be pursued in your subfield
- Paper will be provided
- Use stats, data, images, etc to make your visual attractive!
- BE PREPARED to try and convince others to look into your subfield
- You will be presenting your subfield and trying to persuade others. Your presentation should be compelling and persuasive
Ethical Guidelines for Human Research:
Ethical Guidelines for Human Research:
Humanitarian: People come first, research second
Informed Consent: Let them fully know what they're getting into
Justification:If you have to deceive participants, you better have a good reason & explain yourself after (debrief participants after)
Right to Withdraw: Let them go if they want to at any time
Risks and Benefits: Make sure participants know of all risks and do everything to protect them from said risks
Debriefing: After the study, you have to tell participants what the nature of the study was and what results you wanted to see
Confidentiality: Results and participation are confidential and you have to protect participants by keeping your mouth shut once the study is over ( Psychologists tend to report group results, not individuals)
Questions in Ethics...
Debate #1: Animal Testing & Animal Research
Brainstorm: Have you ever tried to guess someone's occupation based solely on how they dress?
Brainstorm: Have you ever tried to guess someone's occupation bas...
Come up with FIVE SOLID EXAMPLES
The lesson to be learned....
The lesson to be learned....
"You can't judge a book by its' cover"
Sometimes our intuition about something or someone is completely off-base
Psychologists need to be aware of this as well as they are performing research
Scientific Method
- There are MANY different fields in psychology
- All of these fields use the same basic tools of science
- These tools are called the scientific method
- Researchers in this field cannot let their bias or personal opinion show, must be objective
- Scientific method helps to instill this objective nature
- reduce bias
- maintain objectivity
Scientific Method
The Scientific Method
The Scientific Method
1. Perceive the question.
2. Form a hypothesis – tentative explanation of a phenomenon based on observations.
3. Test the hypothesis.
4. Draw conclusions.
5. Report your results so that others can try to replicate - repeat the study or experiment to see if the same results will be obtained in an effort to demonstrate reliability of results.
Methods of Research
1.Non-Experiment
2. Correlation
3. Experimental
Non-Experimental
Non-Experimental
Naturalistic Observation
- observing subject in their natural environment
- allows researchers to get a realistic view of how certain behaviors occur/ what causes certain behaviors
- Can be used effectively on both animals and humans
Non-Experimental
Labratory Method
- Variables such as environment, lights, outside influences, etc. can be kept under control
- Sometimes it is just more practical and makes it easier to record observation that will be conclusive
Non-Experimental
Case Study Method
- Descriptive Technique
- Individual or one group is observed and studied in great detail over a lengthy period of time
- try to learn everything they can about their specific subject
Non-Experimental
Survey Method
- Used if info is sensitive and would not want to be shared
- Used to find out about private behavior
- Use a series of questions about a topic to pool results from different subjects
- Can be conducted in person, on the phone, or over the internet
Advatages/ Disadvantages
Using the chart provided & your textbook, fill in the advantages & disadvantages for utilizing each different method within the non-experimental category:
-Naturalistc Observation
-Labratory Method
-Case Study
-Survey Method
Correlation Method
Correlation Method
Allows researchers to know more than just a description of what has happened
- Statistical technique
- Organizes data and numbers to more easily see patterns and relationships within the info
- A correlation is a measurement of a relationship between two or more variables
- Allows researchers to see if there is a relationship between two variables, how strong the relationship is, and what direction the relationship will take ( positive or negative)
- Measures of two variables go into a mathematical formula and produce a correlation coefficient (r), which represents two things:
direction of the relationship.
strength of the relationship.
- Knowing the value of one variable allows researchers to predict the value of the other variable.
Correlation Method
- Positive correlation – variables are related in the same direction.
As one increases, the other increases; as one decreases, the other decreases.
- Negative correlation – variables are related in opposite direction.
As one increases, the other decreases.
CORRELATION DOES NOT PROVE CAUSATION!!!
Experimental Method
Experimental Method
- This is the only method that allows researchers to determine the actual cause of a behavior
- They do this by conducting an experiment
An experiment is defined as researchers attempting a deliberate manipulation of a variable to see if corresponding changes in behavior result, allowing the determination of cause-and-effect relationships.
Parts of an experiment
Operational definition - definition of a variable of interest that allows it to be directly measured.
Independent variable (IV) - variable in an experiment that is manipulated by the experimenter.
Dependent variable (DV) - variable in an experiment that represents the measurable response or behavior of the subjects in the experiment.
Experimental group - subjects in an experiment who are subjected to the independent variable.
Control group - subjects in an experiment who are not subjected to the independent variable and who may receive a placebo treatment (controls for confounding variables).
Steps to conduct an experiment:
1. Define different aspects of experiment (who, what, when)
2.Random sample of subjects (must get informed consent)
3. Decide what variable to manipulate in experiment
4. Note dependent variable or the responses of the participants
The dependent variable is what results from the experiment varying or changing the independent variable
Possible Problems
Placebo effect - the phenomenon in which the expectations of the participants in a study can influence their behavior.
Single-blind study- subjects do not know if they are in the experimental or the control group (reduces placebo effect).
Experimenter effect - tendency of the experimenter’s expectations for a study to unintentionally influence the results of the study.
Double-blind study - neither the experimenter nor the subjects knows if the subjects are in the experimental or control group (reduces placebo effect and experimenter effect).
Example of a Real Experiment
Hypothesis: extrinsic (external) reward would reduce creativity.
Independent variable – two different sets of instructions.
Dependent variable – creativity on art project as judged by raters blind to the group assignment.
Experimental group – instructed to make project to compete for an award (prizes).
Control group – instructed to make project for fun; prizes would be raffled off.
Results supported hypothesis: those competing for extrinsic reward were less creative.
Data Analysis
Psychologists use data to determine results & that data has to be analyzed
Data Analysis
- Descriptive Statistics: summarize the info you found from research
- Inferntial Statistics: make judgements and decisions regarding the data and relationships between variables
All about trying to collect and interpret data from a sample
Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive Statistics
Measure of Central Tendancy
Used to summarize & give you one score that seems typical of your sample
Three Types
Mean: The average of scores
Median: Score in the middle
Mode: Score that is most frequent
Measure of Variablity
Measure of Variablity
- Used to figure out how spread out the scores are from each other
- If all the scores are close together, the smaller the measure of variability will be
- If they are spread out, the larger the measure of variability will be
1. Range: the difference between the highest score & lowest score
2. Standard Deviation: represents how far away scores are from the mean or average
Inferential statistics
Inferential statistics
- They are looking for flaws, relationships, and patterns in data that are caused by errors, not just chance
- Inferential Statistics take chance variations into account
- Looking for differences in group measurements that are statistically significant
- Testing statistical significance is a way to figure out if differences are real or just random
Data Displays
1. Histogram
2. Frequency Distribution
3. Polygon
Data Displays
Social Media Poll
Social Media Poll
Using the answers from our social media poll, conduct an analysis of the data:
mean
median
mode
range
Create a histogram, polygon, & frequency distribution for each category