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King Ptolemy
Achievements
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The troubles began in Alexandrian Egypt, circa 300 BC King Ptolemy was the first leader to deem it a-ok for medical types to cut open the dead for the purpose of figuring out how bodies work. His first major astronomical work, the Almagest, was completed about 150 CE and contains reports of astronomical observations that Ptolemy had made over the preceding quarter of a century.
Works Cited
He compiled a star catalog and the earliest surviving table of a trigonometric function and established mathematically that an object and its mirror image must make equal angles to a mirror. In several fields his writings represent the culminating achievement of Greco-Roman science.
Works Cited
Jones, Alexander Raymond. "Ptolemy". Encyclopedia Britannica, 29 Mar. 2022, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ptolemy. Accessed 1 September 2022.
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Herophilus( (325-255 B. C.)
He was dubbed the Father of Anantomy, he was the first physician to dissect human bodies. While Herophilus was indeed a dedicated and tireless man of science, he seems to have lost his bearings along the way.
Herophilus let enthusiasm take over, and he found an interest in dissecting live animals. According to one of his accusers, Tertullian, Herophilus vivisected six hundred prisoners. This started the spark of the tradition of using executed criminals for dissection and hit its stride in eighteenth and nineteenth century Britain, when private anatomy schools for medical students began to flourish in the cities of England and Scotland.
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Works Cited:
Roach, Mary. Stiff: The Curious Lives of Human Cadavers. W. W. Norton & Company, 2004.Accessed September 1, 2022.
In January of 2002, New York Times reporter Norimitsu Onishi interviewd a student at Kandahar Medical College who had made the anguishing decision to dig up the bones of his beloved grandmother and share them with his classmates.
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Dissection as a sentencing option for murderers was mandated, in 1752 Britain, as an alternative to postmortem gibbetting. In attempting to copewith the shortage of cadavers legally availoable for Dissection instructers at British and early American anatomy schools backed themselves into some unsavory corners
Colonial physician, Thomas Sewell, who went on to become the personal physcian to three US presidents and to found what is now George Washington University Medical School, was convicted in 1818 of digging up the Corpse of a young Ipswich, Massachusetts, woman for the the purposes if dissection.
William Burke was a man who got hanged for his crimes, which included him and another man, Hare, selling corpses for money. Some of those corpses, created by Burke himself. When he was hanged in the year 1828, a crowd of more than 25,000 people watched. Afterwards, Burke’s body was dissected and then the following day, the lab was opened to the public. Some thirty thousand people vindicated gawkers arrived to witness this. Burke’s bones were made into a skeleton by order of the judge, as well as several wallets made from Burke’s skin. One account from a woman named Sheena Jones, detailed that one of the wallets made from Burke’s skin was in possession of one Mr. Chiene. Now, it wasn’t ever clear whether Mr. Chiene had ever kept his money in it, but the wallet did look indistinguishable from any other regular brown leather wallet.
How I feel about the ways that people have learned about human bodies is slightly horrified in a way because Burke's skin was turned into a wallet. Ethical history is important to consider while learning because it is what separates us today in the modern world from the barbaric and crude methods from the past. The ends do not justify the means in this case because no matter what the crime is, no person and their body should be desecrated to such a degree as William Burke was. Learning about controversial contributions does not change my perspective of Anatomy & Physiology, despite how vivid and graphic they may be. The reason as to why this is in my opinion is because if these controversial contributions were not made, we may have never known what we know today about the human body.
Known as the Father of Chinese Medicine, Huang Ti set out to write an authoritative medical and anatomical text (Nei Ch’ing, or Canon of Medicine), around the 2600 B.C. because of a Confucian doctrine that considered dissection a defilement of the human body and forbade it's practice.. The following is a quote from Early History of Human Anatomy, “The heart is a king, who rules over all organs of the body; the lungs are his executive, who carry out his orders; the liver is his commandant, who keeps up the discipline; the gall bladder, his attorney general . . . and the spleen, his steward who supervises the five tastes. There are three burning spaces—the thorax, the abdomen and the pelvis—which are together responsible for the sewage system of the body.” To Huang Ti’s Credit, though, he managed, without ever disassembling a corpse, to figure out that the “blood of the body is under the control of the heart” and that “the blood current flows in a continuous circles and never stops.” In other words, the man figured out what William Harvery figured out, four thousand year before Havery and without laying open any family members.
I am honestly quite amazed by how far ahead Huang Ti was ahead of his time, considering what knowledge he discovered and attained while examining and learning about human bodies. Ethical history is important to consider while learning because it shows how far we have come along in ethics and how we go about performing procedures. In this case, the ends do justify the means because without these discoveries, there would be no other way for Huang Ti to be able to understand how a human body works without dissecting it and make his contributions to Chinese medicine. This contribution was not as controversial as those that were previously mentioned, nor was it as gruesome or graphic as some contributions to anatomy have been in history. So no, learning about this contribution did not change my perspective of Anatomy & Physiology. If anything, it further piqued my interest into the subject because I am fascinated by the way in which Huang Ti was able to deduct how the human body works.
Known as the Father of Modern Gynecology, James Marion Sims developed pioneering tools and surgical techniques related to women’s reproductive health. Sims’s research was conducted on enslaved Black women without anesthesia. Medical ethicists, historians, and others say his use of enslaved Black bodies as medical test subjects falls into a long, ethically bereft history that includes the Tuskegee syphilis experiment and Henrietta lacks. Sims cared more about the experiments than in providing therapeutic treatment, and that he caused untold suffering by operating under the racist notion that Black people did not feel pain. Sims, who practiced medicine at a time when treating women was considered distasteful and rarely done, invented the vaginal speculum, a tool used for dilation and examination. He also pioneered a surgical technique to repair vesicovaginal fistula, a common 19th-century complication of childbirth in which a tear between the uterus and bladder caused constant pain and urine leakage.
I feel deep sorrow for all the enslaved Black women that were put through the suffering and torment of Sims because of his brutal, careless, and racist methods of learning about the human body. Ethical history is incredibly important to consider while learning of very controversial contributions such as this one because ethics are what separates horrible, sadistic, racist, and downright despicable people such as Sims from normal, compassionate, and caring people that we have today in the medical field. In my personal opinion, I strong believe that the ends do not in any way justify the means in this case because what was done was absolutely horrific and practically a crime against humanity. The advancements made as a result of what Sims did still benefits women even to this very day. However, he would have achieved the same results without being so brutal, cruel, and prejudiced during the conduction of his research. Learning about this particular controversial contribution does change my perspective of Anatomy & Physiology because the contents of what occurred in this contribution are very graphic, very horrid, and downright awful. This does do one thing for me however, which is to always be very mindful of my future patients and make their treatment as comfortable for them as possible as well as being very compassionate to all who would be recipients of my care in the future.
The purpose of the study was to determine whether penicillin could prevent, not just cure, syphilis infection. Some of those who became infected never received medical treatment. The results of the study, which took place with the cooperation of Guatemalan government officials, were never published. The American public health researcher in charge of the project, Dr. John Cutler, went on to become a lead researcher in the Tuskegee experiments.
She was an American woman whose cervical cancer cells were the source of the HeLa cell line, research on which contributed to numerous important scientific advances. Henrietta received the first of several radium treatments, the standard of care for the day, which involved stitching small glass tubes of the radioactive metal secured in fabric pouches—called Brack plaques—to the cervix. While performing the procedure, the surgeon extracted two small tissue samples: one from Henrietta’s tumor and one from healthy cervical tissue close by. The samples from Henrietta’s cervix were among many extracted for physician George Gey, the head of tissue culture research at Johns Hopkins, who was searching for an “immortal” cell line for use in cancer research. Unlike previous samples, Henrietta’s cancerous cells—called HeLa, from Henrietta Lacks—not only survived but also multiplied at an extraordinary rate. While her cells thrived, Henrietta declined. By September the cancer had spread throughout her body, and early the following month Henrietta died. However, the HeLa cells, famed for their longevity, continued to thrive in culture long after Henrietta’s death. HeLa became a ubiquitous study material, contributing to the development of drugs for numerous ailments, including polio, Parkinson disease, and leukemia.
I feel that the way people have learned about human bodies has been through a harsh, and in some cases-unethical way. Ethical is important to consider while learning because the discoveries we make is due to how the people who wanted to use their bodies for discovery, and should be treated as such. In other words it is important to treat everything with respect and do everything in an ethical way. In this case, it was not done in an ethical way because for example, William Burke was selling the corpses for money. Learning about these controversial topics opened my eyes to how badly and in a harsh manner people made discoveries, and made me think about how much was sacrificed so that humankind could learn about new things and dicoveries.