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IB Psych

Social

Cultural

Approach

Social-Cultural Unit

Overview

  • The individual and the group

  • Cultural origins of behavior and cognition

  • Cultural influences on individual attitudes, identity and behavior

  • Globalization and behavior

(HL only)

Possible Essays

Individual & the Group

  • Explain Social Identity Theory, making use of one study.

  • Explain one study of Social Identity Theory.

  • Explain Social Cognitive Theory, making use of one study.

  • Explain one theory of stereotypes, making use of one study.

  • Explain one study of stereotypes.

  • Explain one study that shows one effect of stereotypes on behavior.

Possible Essays

Cultural Origins

  • Describe one cultural dimension.

  • Explain one study of one cultural dimension.

  • Explain one study of one effect of culture on behavior or cognition.

Possible Essays

Explain one study of enculturation.

Explain one study of acculturation.

Cultural Influences

Possible Essays

HL

Globalization

  • Discuss how globalization may affect behavior, cognitive processes and/or attitudes.

  • Discuss the interaction between local and global influences on behavior.

  • Evaluate research methods used to study the influence of globalization on behavior.

Individual & The Group

Individual & the Group

Topics:

Social Identity Theory

Social Cognitive Theory

Stereotypes

Social

Identity

Theory

Social Identity

The Idea that as humans we are social creatures, and while we have one identity of who we are, we also have a social identity that may chane depending on who we are with.

The original theory of Social Identity proposed by Tajfel & Turner identified four psychological mechanisms:

  • Social categorization
  • Social identification
  • Social comparison
  • Positive distinctiveness

Social categorization 

  • the process by which we identity which groups we belong to and which groups we do not.
  • The groups we belong to and identify with are referred to as our "in-groups." When referring to our in-group, we often use the words "we" and "us".
  • The groups that we do not belong to, are referred to as "out-groups." When referring to our out-groups, we often use the words "they" and "them."

Social identification 

  • This is the process of adopting the norms of the group and taking on the characteristics of the group.

Social comparison

  • A means of justifying our group membership.
  • We seek to achieve positive self-esteem by positively comparing our in-group to an out-group on some valued dimension to achieve positive distinctiveness.
  • We favor the traits of our in-group, even if we did not necessarily choose to be a part of the group ourselves.

Levine 2005

Aim:

If people are more likely to help someone in the same group

Procedure:

Participants were primed with a questionnaire about the home team, or about being a football fan. Afterward an actor would while wearing either the away teams, home teams jersey, neutral.

Levine 2005

Results:

People were more likely to help him if he appeared in the in-group jersey. Or if they were primed for a football fan in general were more likely to help anyone with a football jersey as opposed to a neutral shirt

Abrams et al 1990

Aim:

to determine if in-group identity would affect one's willingness to conform.

Sample:

Fifty undergraduate students (23 males and 27 females) enrolled in an introductory psychology course

A version of Ashe's Conformity Study

Abrams et al 1990

Procedures

At the start of the experiment, the confederates were introduced either as first-year students from the psychology department of another university (in-group) or as students of ancient history (out-group).

The participants were instructed not to talk to each other.

As in the Asch paradigm, the participants were shown a stimulus line, and then three other lines - one of which was the same length as the stimulus line. The task was to identify which of the three lines matched the stimulus line. Confederates only gave the correct response half the times.

In the public condition, all four members of the group gave their judgments aloud, and the experimenter recorded the real participant’s responses.

In the private condition, however, the experimenter asked if one of the participants would note down the responses, in order to leave her free to operate the computer. The real participant, who happened to be nearest, was asked if he or she would like to record responses.

The three confederates then gave their judgments aloud in turn and the real participant recorded their responses on a score sheet along with his or her own, privately.

Abrams et al 1990

Results

  • Seventy-seven percent of all participants conformed to the erroneous confederate judgments on at least one trial.

  • The students were more likely to conform in the ingroup public response, and less likely to conform in the outgroup public response.

  • The in-group private and out-group private conditions did not differ significantly.

Implications

The results seem to indicate that social categorization can play a key role in one’s decision to conform publicly.

Abrams et al 1990

  • The study has low ecological validity.

  • There are ethical concerns about the use of deception.

  • The study was made up of university students, so the results may be difficult to generalize. Remember that samples of university students tend to be YAVIS: young, affluent, verbal, intelligent and social.

  • The study was done in an individualistic society. It is culturally biased.

  • The study isolates a single variable in order to test its role in conformity; however, in real life there may be several variables that interact to determine conformity behaviors.

How does S.I.T. affect our lives?

Juries?

Emergency situations?

Sexuality?

Juries

Bagby & Rector (1992)

Participants read a transcript of a rape trial which varied the ethnicity of the defendant and victim. The participants were asked to determine the defendant's guilt on a 7-point scale. All participants were French Canadians. The researchers found that the French Canadian participants rated the out-group (English) defendant more guilty when the victim was from the in-group (French) than when she was from the out-group (English).

Emergency situations

Drury et al. (2009)

Used both virtual reality simulations and personal stories of real disasters and found that people in a crowd develop a shared social identity based on their common experience in an emergency. It results in what they call "collective resilience."

He found that making their identity as "Americans" or "passengers" or "fellow football fans" more salient, they were willing to act as a group and not panic in an emergency situation. This is better than using sirens or other emergency signals.

Sexuality?

Bem (1996) has argued that early childhood preference for opposite-sex peers leads to the eroticization of the out-group, which consists of same-sex peers.

In other words, she argues that if a girl identifies more with male peers and remains almost exclusively in that gender group, she will identify more with the boys. As boys develop and begin to eroticize the out-group - that is, girls - then the girl would do the same.

This is an attempt to explain same-sex attraction from a sociocultural level of analysis.

This may explain why some girls (or boys) are attracted to the same gender, but it does not predict very well whether this will be the case. Many girls play with a predominantly male peer group and do not end up being attracted to the same sex.

Social

Cognitive

Theory

Social Cognitive Theory

  • Behavior is learned from the environment through the processes of modeling and reinforcement.

  • Developed Psychologist Bandura

Modeling

  • Involves learning through the observation of other people, which may lead to imitation if the behavior is to be imitated leads to desirable consequences
  • We can learn by watching other people.
  • vicarious reinforcement.

Necessary Conditions that must be met for Social Learning

Attention:

  • In order to learn, observers must pay attention to the modeled behavior.

Retention:

  • Observers must be able to remember features of the behavior.

Motivation:

  • Observers must want to reproduce it and expect a certain outcome from the behavior.

Potential:

  • Observers must physically and/or mentally be able to carry out the behavior.

Think about our SOs at our school, how could we increase the social learning aspect

Study 1: Bandura 1961

aka Bashing Bobo

Aim:

determine the extent to which film-mediated aggressive models may serve as an important source of imitative behavior

Sample:

48 boys and 48 girls

between 3 to 5 ½ years old

Bashing Bobo

Procedures:

  • The child was brought into a small room.
  • The model (an adult) was taken to the other corner and the child was told this was the model’s play area. It contained small toys, a mallet and a 5 foot tall inflatable Bobo doll.
  • The model began by playing with the toys but after one minute they started acting aggressively towards the doll.
  • The model sat on the doll and punched it in the nose, it raised the doll and hit its head with the mallet, it threw it about the room and kicked it.
  • This was also accompanied by verbally aggressive statements, such as “hit him down,” “sock him in the nose,” “pow”, etc.

  • The control group the model played normally with the toys.
  • A third group (passive) saw the model play with the Bobo doll nicely.

Bashing Bobo

Results:

  • The results were that all of the children showed some level of aggression against the Bobo.

  • However, the group that saw the aggressive model were the most aggressive.Those that saw the control were second; and those what saw the passive model showed the least aggression.

  • In addition, the boys were the most violent. They tended to imitate both the male and the female models, although they commented that the woman’s behavior was not acceptable, saying “Ladies should not behave that way.”

  • Girls tended to imitate the verbal aggression of the male - and imitated the female model more directly.

Bashing Bobo

Evaluation

???

Study 2: Joy, Kimball & Zabrack (1986)

Aim:

studied the impact of television on children's aggressive behavior

Sample:

120 elementary school kids

3 Canadian cities

One that just TV reception for first time (Notel)

Research Method:

Natural Experiment

Joy, Kimball & Zabrack (1986)

Procedures:

  • Interviewed teachers and parents on student behavior before and after tv was introduced to the city of Notel

  • Observed children on the playgrounds before and after tv was introduced to the city

  • Also did the same for two nearby cities as a control group

Joy, Kimball & Zabrack (1986)

Results:

  • The aggressive behavior of children in Notel increased significantly from 1973 to 1975.

  • The aggressive behavior of children in the other two towns did not change significantly over the same period.

  • Males were more physically aggressive than females.

  • The information collected about children's favorite shows showed no differences between the aggressive and less aggressive children.

  • The peer and teacher ratings supported the findings

Stereotypes

Stereotypes

  • Often acquired indirectly from other people and social norms and not from personal experience. 

  • They are schemas that help us understand the world around us.

  • Stereotypes can be either positive or negative.

  • Tend to be very general in nature and individuals acknowledge that they cannot be applied to all members of the group. The stereotype serves as a heuristic - the person is like this, until proven otherwise.

  • Prone to confirmation bias - that is, we tend to see examples - whether on the street, in print or on television - that confirm our stereotypes and we tend to ignore evidence that contradicts them.

Prejudice

Prejudice

  • When we make a judgment about individuals with very little information about them except for their group membership.
  • Prejudice is an attitude - which means that cognition (schema) is combined with emotion - in this case, often liking or disliking the individual.
  • Prejudice is usually negative.

Implicit Bias

  • having a unconscious preference for or against a group usually based on schema

Discrimination

  • Discrimination is a behavior - based on stereotyping and prejudice.

Causes of Prejudices

  • Social Inequities (the haves vs. the have nots)
  • Social Divisions/Identities
  • Emotional Scapegoating
  • Thought patterns… cognition

Social Identities

In and Out Groups

  • Ingroup = people with whom one shares a common identity… “us”
  • Outgroup= those perceived as different from one’s ingroup… “them”
  • Ingroup bias = the tendency to favor one’s own group.

Levine Study

Rogers & Frantz (1961)

Aim:

to see whether stereotypes could be the result of conformity to group norms

Sample:

Stratified sample of 500 White Europeans aged 20 and over, living in Zimbabwe (Rhodesia) for a period of fewer than five years to over forty years.

Method:

cross-sectional correlation study

Rogers & Frantz (1961)

Procedures:

  • Survey of of laws and customs in which White Europeans and Africans were treated differently
  • Four response choices were provided with 0 for it is very important to maintain the current system, to it is very important to discontinue the law

Results

  • The Europeans who support the status quo least strongly were those who had been living in Southern Zimbabwe for fewer than five years.

Implications

  • The longer people lived there the more they were to conform to racist attitudes

Evaluation?

Blue Eye Brown Eye Experiment

Scape Goat Experiment

When prejudice is an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame.

This has happened throughout history:

  • Japanese internment after the attack on Pearl Harbor
  • The blaming of Jews in Nazi Germany for the years of economic despair,
  • The lashing out against innocent Arab-Americans after the Twin Towers attack on 9/11
  • Immigrants
  • "Chinese Virus"

Cognitive Theories

Our brains use and LOVE shortcuts, or categories, so we quickly categorize people into groups based on easily identifiable traits (looks, behaviors, etc.), and then we stereotype that group based on the few experiences we’ve had

  • Schema Theory
  • Availability Heuristics
  • Anchoring Heuristics
  • Confirmation Bias
  • Just-world phenomenon

How Prejudices and Stereotypes affect people?

Studies have shown that prejudice effects all of the following:

  • Self Esteem
  • Grade
  • School Punishments
  • Arrest rates
  • Court Cases
  • Housing
  • Employment

Stereotype Threat

Stereotype threat

  • a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype

Self-fulfilling prophecy

  • a belief that leads to its own fulfillment.
  • Example…
  • coach doesn’t think freshmen are good players, so he never plays the freshmen. When he eventually does play the freshmen, they are no good (because he never plays), fulfilling his assumption that freshmen aren’t good.

Doll Test

For the Brown v. Board of Education case, psychologist Kenneth Clark conducted an experiment to find the effects of segregation on black children.

  • Did the “separate but equal” norm of society impact the way black children viewed themselves?

The Clarks concluded that prejudice, discrimination, and segregation caused black children to develop a sense of inferiority and self-hatred.

  • How are society factors influencing the children’s self-concept?

Does it still affect kids today or adults?

Steele and Amundson 1995

Aim:

To investigate test performance as a function of stereotype threat in whites vs blacks

Procedure:

Divide people into two groups

Experimental group was told they are taking a test to measure verbal abilities and limitations

Control group told they were taking a test better understand psychological factors in problem solving

Steele and Amundson 1995

Results:

  • Whites did the same on both test

  • Blacks performed as well as whites in the control group

  • Blacks performed worse than whites on the diagnostic condition (where they were going to measure their verbal abilities)

Implications and Evaluation?

Rosenthal and Jacobson 1968

Aim:

To investigate if students where greater academic growth is expected, will see greater academic growth

Procedures:

Teacher were told that based on IQ scores certain students were expected to be “growth spurters”

How to reduce prejudices?

Contact hypothesis:

stereotypes and prejudice toward a group will diminish as contact with the group increases.

Is this enough?

Research has recently shown that no, it’s not enough by itself. It is part of the solution but there must be some intentionality, educational techniques to address the social cognition and perceptions.

Rosenthal and Jacobson 1968

Results:

  • Control group gained an avg of 8.4 IQ points while the experimental group (Growth Spurters) grew 12.4 points
  • In younger students the change was more drastic, in 1st grade it was 12 IQ points for control versus 27.4 for experimental

Implications and Evaluation?

Possible Essay Questions

SAQs

Explain one cultural dimension.

Explain one study of one cultural dimension.

Explain one study of one effect of culture on behavior or cognition.

ERQs

Discuss one or more cultural dimensions.

Discuss one or more studies of one cultural dimension.

Discuss one or more effects of culture on behavior and/or cognition.

Cultural

Origins

of

Behavior

Culture

How do you define Culture?

  • Common Rules that Regulate interactions and behaviors in a group as well as a shared values and attitudes in the group. Such rules create a sense of safety and belonging (Lonner 1995)

  • A dynamic system of rules, explicit and implicit established by groups in order to ensure their survival involving attitudes, values, beliefs, norms, and behaviors (Matsumoto 2001)

Deep vs Surface Level

Culture

Surface culture

  • foods we eat, clothing, dance or the arts.

Deep culture

  • values that determine behavior.

Activity: Deep or Surface Level

  • Czechs are very quiet in public. They often do not speak on public transportation and find others that do so rude.

  • Czechs eat a large meal for lunch and usually cold food for dinner.

  • Czechs are very private people. It is very rare that you would be invited to a Czech's home. Usually, you meet in a public space, like a pub.

  • Younger people are supposed to greet older people, and not vice versa.

  • You should always wish people a "good meal" before you begin to eat.

  • Czechs are very punctual. They do not like it when people are late for appointments.

  • When giving someone flowers, never give an even number. It is considered unlucky.

Cultural Dimensions

Cultural Dimensions

Hofstede (1980)

  • Content analysis of questionnaires from several different countries and how they perceive their workplace

  • Cultural Dimensions are the values within a culture that influences behavior and cognition

  • By comparing values, we can more easily compare deep culture aspects

Cultural Dimensions

Collectivism vs Individualism

  • Collectivism:
  • Values Harmony, Tradition and Interdependence

  • Individualism
  • Values achievement, uniqueness, and independence

Power Distance

How people relate to authority

  • Low Power Distance:
  • More democratic, believe their voice should be heard

  • High Power Distance
  • Centralize Authority, Accept their place, do not believe they have a voice

Cultural Dimensions

Uncertainty Avoidance

  • If people see uncertainty as a threat or challenge
  • Places with high uncertainty avoidance have lots of rules

Femininity or Masculinity

  • Feminine
  • Good relationships, Equality, and Cooperation

  • Masculinity
  • Competition, Work

Cultural Dimensions

Indulgence or self restraint

  • Satisfaction…under or over

Long-term versus Short-term Orientation

  • Goals
  • Work for something later in life, or want to be rewarded now

Activity: What advice would you give?

https://www.hofstede-insights.com/product/compare-countries

1. You are a cultural psychologist who works for a big transnational company. One of your Danish employees has never been out of his country before and is about to move to Korea. In Korea, he will be working as the manager of his division. What advice can you give him based on what we know about the dimensions of Korean culture?

2. Max is Russian. He is coming to you for marriage therapy as he and his wife, who is from Thailand, are having difficulties. You wonder if there could be a cultural basis to their difficulties and do some research on the cultural differences. What questions might you ask them based on what you know about their respective cultures?

3. A Czech student is trying to decide on which international school to go to in Prague. There is an American school, a French school and a Russian school. Based on her cultural background, which school do you think that she would most easily adjust to? Be able to defend your response.

Cultural Dimensions

Evaluation of Hofstedes Study

Strengths

  • Objective collection of data
  • Cross Cultural
  • Explains a large range of behaviors

Limitations

  • Self Reported
  • Sampling from only workplaces
  • Temporal Validity

How would Power Distance affect other areas besides talking to your boss?

Relationships?, Doctor Visits?, Being the boss? Etc…

Meeuwesen, Brink, Hofstede 2009

Aim:

To investigate medical communication between cultures in regard to power distance

Method:

Videotaped doctor sessions and followed up with questionnaires

Sample:

around 300 doctors and 5000 patients in 10 European countries

Results:

High PDI – short sessions, one sided with Dr talking

Low PDI – longer sessions, Dr more open to questions, shared more information

Eylon and Au 1999

Aim

To investigate the relationship between power distance and empowerment in the workplace

Sample

135 MBA students from Canada

Procedure

Divided students up into low PDI and High PDI using country of origin and language

Placed them in a management simulations where they were either empowered or disempowered (structured tasks and responsibilities)

Results

All scored well in satisfaction in empowerment situations

High PDI did not perform as well when empowered vs disempowered

Low PDI performed better when empowered vs disempowered

Possible Essay Questions

Cultural

Influences

on Behavior

&

Attitudes

Discuss one or more studies of enculturation.

Discuss one or more studies of acculturation.

Acculturation

Acculturation Stress

The psychological impact of adaptation to a new culture. As with any type of stress, long term acculturation stress also may lead to reduced mental and physical health.

Another term for acculturation stress is “culture shock.”

Reverse culture shock

  • The feeling of surprise, disorientation, confusion, alienation or frustration experienced when people return to their home culture after living in another culture, and finding that they do not fit in as they used to

Acculturation gaps

Also known as acculturation dissonance.

These are differences in understandings and values between parents and children as they go through the process of acculturation.

This occurs when parents have a different acculturation strategy from their children (see Berry’s model).

Berry's Model

Miranda & Matheny (2000)

Aim:

  • to see what factors would decrease the level of acculturation stress in Latino immigrants to the USA.

Sample:

  • 197 immigrants.

Method & Procedure:

  • All filled in a questionnaire which tested their level of acculturation stress.

What do you predict would be the findings of the study?

Miranda & Matheny (2000)

Results:

People who did the following were less likely to have acculturation stress

  • Proficiency in English

  • Effective coping skills

  • Strong family structure

  • The amount of time spent in the USA

Lueck & Wilson (2010)

Aim:

  • to see what factors would decrease the level of acculturative stress in Asian immigrants to the USA.

Sample:

  • 2095 immigrants: 1271 first generation and the rest were born in the US.

Method & Procedure:

  • Semi-structured interviews.

What do you predict would be the findings of the study?

Lueck & Wilson (2010)

Results:

People who had these protective factors less likely to be stressed

  • Bilinguals had low acculturation stress.

  • The preference for only speaking English is a predictor of high acculturation stress.

  • Negative treatment leads to acculturation stress.

  • Sharing values with one’s family lowers acculturation stress.

  • Those who were economically satisfied had lower acculturation stress.

Enculturation

ENCULTURATION

What was do we see enculturation in society?

Enculturation is the process of how we adopt the behaviors that are the norm for our culture.

  • Direct Tuition 
  • Someone (parents) directly teaching/telling you something

  • Observational Learning 
  • Social Cognitive Learning

  • Participatory Learning
  • children engage in an activity and then transfer that learning to later situations.

Videos

Martin & Halvorson (1983)

Method: Experiment

Aim: To study

Procedures:

  • stories were read to children of both genders between the ages of five and six.
  • The researchers showed the children pictures of males and females in activities that were either in line with gender role schemas
  • for example, a girl playing with a doll
  • or inconsistent with gender role schemas
  • for example, a girl playing with a toy gun.
  • A week later, the children were asked to remember what they had seen on the pictures.

Martin & Halvorson (1983)

Results:

  • The children had distorted memories of pictures that were not consistent with gender role schemas
  • They remembered the picture of a girl playing with a toy gun as a picture of a boy playing with a toy gun.
  • Children remembered more details and demonstrated less distortion of memory when the stories were consistent with gender schema.

Implications

  • This supports the idea that children are actively seeking out information to confirm and develop their gender schema.

Fagot (1978)

Method: Naturalistic Observation

Sample: 24 Families (12 with a girl and 12 with a boy of 2 years of age)

Procedure:

  • Observers used an observation checklist of 46 child behaviors and 19 reactions by parents.
  • There were five 60-minute observations completed for each family over a five-week period.
  • The observer used time sampling, making note of the child's behavior every 60 seconds and then noting the parents’ response.
  • Two observers were used to establish inter-coder reliability.

Fagot (1978)

Results:

  • Boys were more likely to be left alone by their parents than girls.
  • Parents gave boys more positive responses when they played with blocks than they did girls.
  • Parents gave girls more negative responses when they manipulated an object than they did boys.
  • Parents gave more positive responses to girls than boys for playing with dolls and more negative responses to boys.
  • Parents criticized girls more when they participated in large motor activities – e.g. running and jumping.
  • Parents gave more positive responses to girls than boys when they asked for help and a more negative response to boys.
  • Fathers were more concerned with appropriate sex-typing than mothers and both parents found more behaviors appropriate for girls only than for boys only.

Questions remaining

  • What is gender?

  • Historically have we always enculturated genders?

  • Are there only two genders?

  • Historically have there always been two genders?

Who is famous person?

Franklin Roosevelt

US President during Great Depression and WW2

Are there only two genders?

Click to edit text

Male

Female

XY

More Testosterone

Likes Females

Testes

Penis

Male Roles In Society

XX

More Estrogen

Likes Males

Ovaries

Vagina

Female Roles In Society

Male

But what about

XY

More Testosterone

Likes Females

Testes

Penis

Male Roles In Society

Female

  • XXX, XXY, XO
  • Males with more estrogen, females with more testosterone
  • Fa’fafine
  • Ovaries and testes
  • Guevedoces

XX

More Estrogen

Likes Males

Ovaries

Vagina

Female Roles In Society

Yet more issues

  • Legal Gender

  • Gender Dysmorphia

  • Sex Changes

  • Sex Corrections

  • Animals Species Sex is a spectrum
  • Brain differences

Evaluation of Enculturation Theory on Gender

  • Theory helps to explain the rigidity of gender stereotypes held by children.

  • Support for the concept of "self-socialization" - that is, that children actively seek out information about their gender, is vague and unmeasurable.

  • The majority of caregivers are still women. This means that boys and girls have a very similar experience in their development. SCT does not account for this.

  • Media is difficult to assess because children tend to watch gender-based shows.

  • Studies are often correlational, leading to the question of bidirectional ambiguity.

Evaluation of Enculturation Theory on Gender

  • The theory does not help explain children who do not conform to a community's gender norms.

  • Biological factors are not taken into account.

  • Gender is rather consistent around the world. The similarities are more notable than the differences. Differences are often the result of local resources.

  • There is the problem of the operationalization of culture as a variable in a globalized and Internet-connected world.

Summary

HL

Globalization & Behavior

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Key Campaigns

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