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An Image of a campfire at dusk, retrieved from:
https://www.hottimeinoldtown.com/2013/10/7/4803736/around-the-campfire
Fuel has been an important aspect of human society since we were able to harness fire as a tool. At the beginning of the Industrial revolution, humanity transferred to coal as a primary power source, and shortly after, various forms of petroleum. As we progress into a more environmentally friendly society, our fuel choices are changing too.
Fuel cells are a type of fuel sometimes used as backup systems, which burn a store of fuel to generate electricity. Traditionally, they were used in crewed mission, with Hydrogen as the fuel, which generates both electricity and water for the crew.
A diagram of the various fuels and their applications in Aerospace, retrieved from:
https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20070021785/downloads/20070021785.pdf
Hydrogen is the lightest and most abundant element in the Universe. When reacted with oxygen, it reacts violently and quickly to create water and heat. Difficult to extract from our environment, and often harder to store, Hydrogen is a very useful material with a couple significant logistical challenges.
https://fuelcellsworks.com/knowledge/history/
These are a type of fuel cell which react Hydrogen and Oxygen in the reaction
2H2 + O2 = H2O. This generates energy in the form of heat, as well as water. Electricity is gained through harnessing the potential difference between the Hydrogen (enters reaction zone from the Anode) and Oxygen (enters at the Cathode).
A diagram illustrating a general explanation of Hydrogen Fuel Cells. Retrieved at:
https://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/technology/fuel_cells.html
The ability to store energy that can be used later is the cornerstone of a successful civilization. From wood, to coal, from Fuel cells to pumped hydro. Our ability to store energy for later determines our advancement as a species.
A diagram showing the similarities between Lithium Ion batteries and PEM Fuel Cells, giving credence to the idea thattechnologies are two sides of the same coin. retrieved at:
https://www.newkidscar.com/electrical-diagram/electric-battery-diagram/
Finding methods of energy storage that have a minimal impact on the world around us is becoming more and more important. Fossil Fuels are being phased out, and new, low-impact methods are being implemented and investigated. As we progress towards net O carbon emissions, low-impact storage solutions will become necessary for our survival as a species.
An image of El Capitan, with Halfdome in the background, located in the famous Yosemite National Park, California. These are the kinds of places the green energy movement is trying to protect. Image retrived at:
https://www.travelandleisure.com/trip-ideas/national-parks/yosemite-el-capitan-national-parks-centennial
however, that site credits getty images.
Clean energy is becoming more and more important, and thus, the market is being flooded with clean energy storage options. For large, grid systems, pumped Hydro is currently the most popular, however on a consumer level, Batteries are the primary storage option. With a lot of research into new battery technology, including solid state batteries it begs the question; why bother with Hydrogen fuel cells?
The snowy Hydro plant in the snowy mountains is Australia's largest ever infrastructure project in renewable technology. The electricity this plant produce is often sent interstate due to the plant's massive energy output. Image retrieved at:
https://www.energymagazine.com.au/contractors-selected-for-snowy-hydro-2-0/
That is the very question I endeavor to answer in this presentation. In terms of energy storage, they are logistically difficult, AND have green-house waste products. However, the product is water vapor; something our environment is excellent at handling. Although there are logistical challenges, Humanity would only benefit from overcoming these issues. These fuel cells have very high energy densities when compared to Lithium-ion batteries, and
have many applications should the technology advance.
Diagram of the Hydrologic cycle (water cycle). Earth is excellent at managing water content, ensuring a constant flow as well as a balance. As the earth heats up, many of the water storage locations are thawing, leading to more water involved in the cycle, as well as more water in the oceans. H-fuel Cells recycle this water, thyey dson't create more, and thus it will have no effect on the water cycle. Image retrieved from:
https://www.britannica.com/science/water-cycle
Power from Hydrogen
Harvesting Hydrogen
Storing Hydrogen
There are many ways to harvest Hydrogen from the environment, however the most common methods are either through electrolysis or steam reforming. Electrolysis is favorable due to no fossil fuels being produced in the process, however it requires more energy input to produce hydrogen this way. It works by pumping electricity into water to break it down into it components. Research is being done in this field to find methods of improving this system, with one of the innovators of this technology literally being a Russian in his basement.
A Liquid Hydrogen storage tank at Launch Pad 39B at the Kennedy Space Center, Florida. Liquid Hydrogen is the prefered form of Hydrogen for space travel, however on earth, we ussually use pressurised Hydrogen as the infrastructure is cheaper and easier to maintain. Image retrieved from:
https://www.nasa.gov/content/liquid-hydrogen-the-fuel-of-choice-for-space-exploration
Hydrogen has a really big issue when it comes to storage. I has a very low density as a gas, leading to a very low energy density. The solution is either to pressurize Hydrogen (the standard is 790 atm), or cool it to a liquid. Pressurization uses less energy, however leads to a very heavy and expensive tank to stop the tiny Hydrogen atoms squeezing through the gaps between atoms in the tank and escaping into the atmosphere/ weakening the tank in a process called Hydrogen embrittlement.
A diagram depicting the process of Hydrogen Embrittlement, which can lead to catastrophic failure of pressure vessels. Image retrieved from:
https://www.magnaplate.com/resources/blog/517-take-early-action-to-avoid-hydrogen-embrittlement
Simply put, Hydrogen fuel cells are made of two primary components. The first is the Hydrogen storage tank. The second is a Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell. A catalyst separates the Hydrogen into protons and electrons. Only the protons can travel from the Anode, through the membrane to the Cathode, while the electrons follow a path around the outside, creating an electron path which can be used to power devices like cars.
A simple diagram of a Proton Exchange Menbrane Fuel Cell. This is the prefered method for producing electricity in a fuel cell, and also when run in reverse (and with a slightly different membrane) can b used to separate water into Hydrogen and Oxygen. Image screen captured from a video at:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f7MzFfuNOtY&t=784s&ab_channel=RealEngineering
time stamp:
9:20
https://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/technology/fuel_cells.html
Where Hydrogen Fuel Cells really shin is in industry and mass production. NASA has been using Hydrogen fuel cells since the Gemini mission, and there is a lot of potential in the transport sector for these fuel cells. They are most cost-efficient when dealing with high-load long-haul transportation as up scaling requires little extra infrastructure.
As previously mentioned, the logistics of harvesting and storing Hydrogen can mean this process is quite expensive, however with continued investment, as well as clever logistics systems, Hydrogen could become an excellent supplement for the transport network. By using off-peak, surplus electricity from the grid, producing Hydrogen is much, much cheaper. Additionally, some Islands (such as the Aran Islands in Ireland) have begun preliminary work to become a hydrogen economy, using the surplus wind and wave energy to generate Hydrogen at a much cheaper price. Finally, Hydrogen can be transported using already installed Natural-gas pipelines, generating new transport solutions as natural gas is phased out.
This is a diagram of the natural gas pipelines in the United States. By utilising pre-existing infrastructure, implamentation of this technology is far chaeper and easier than it would be otherwise. Image retrieved from:
https://sites.google.com/site/metropolitanforensics/natural-gas-pipeline-compressor-stations-and-major-natural-gas-transportation-corridors
Truthfully, the reality of Hydrogen fuel is very much still in limbo. With companies like Tesla taking battery powered vehicles to new heights, its easy to believe that Hydrogen Fuel Cells will every fully take off. In reality however, they provide solutions to a lot of the issues batteries have, including the ethics of cobalt mining. Hydrogen will always be a part of the global power storage system in some way. There's talk of airlines switching over to Hydrogen fuel, which would make the infrastructure for fuel cells much cheaper. It's just a matter of time before we're sharing the roads with Hydrogen truck.
Hydrogen car made by toyota to show the feasability of the technology and aid in supporting the growing market for H-fuel cars. There are currently not enough Hydrogen fuel stations to make these cars practical accross The country, but they are slowly being fitted into existing service stations in busy and built-up areas to maximise the population they can serve. Image retrieved from:
https://erik-engheim.medium.com/why-ev-fans-should-rethink-hydrogen-cars-6d5781a24a14
Currently in terms of cost, battery electric vehicles have Hydrogen vehicles beat by a factor of 8. However, batteries currently have a fairly short lifespan, which is not an issue for fuel cells. Hydrogen cars run with about a 33% efficiency, with Battery vehicles at about 65%, however, when compared to an internal combustion engine's efficiency of 25-30%, they are still an improvement.
In terms of gravimetric energy density, Hydrogen is 2 orders of magnitude better than Li-ion batteries, meaning Hydrogen has a massive advantage at higher ranges and payloads.
Graph showing the diference in efficiency in curent Hydrogen Fuel Cells (left) and Battery(right) vehicles. There is still a huge gap to be overcome, however this technology has only been on the sonsumer market for a little while, so it is possible that gap will be overcome. image sourced from:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f7MzFfuNOtY&t=676s&ab_channel=RealEngineeringg
As illustrated, both the Primary forms of clean transport solutions have their pros and cons. With this in mind, it is not reasonable to assume one will completely take over the other, but instead they will co-exist, complimenting each other's strengths and weaknesses. Finding accurate, unbiased information on this topic is often rather challenging as these technologies are being pushed entirely by companies looking to make profit, and as such often overstate or twist the truth to help sell their products. As such, it is impossible to know exactly what the future of these technologies brings other than the fact that both will co-exist.
Hydrogen Fuel Cells have been used successfully since the Gemini program in 1961. They have huge capabilities in manned space programs, and also contain uses within our transport networks on earth as well. Due to the success of battery technology, future fuel solutions will not be as heavily monopolized as they were in the fossil fuel golden age. Fuel sources will compliment each other, and Hydrogen Fuel Cells will be one of those sources. As our civilization advances, our reliance on Hydrogen will likely grow. With Metallic Hydrogen still a possibility, there is a chance that this humble element will become the most important for our future societies.
Very simple diagram depicting how a Hydrogen Fuel Cell vehicle operates. Similar to a batery electric vehicle, these cars could even be made as hybrids of each other in the future. Image sourced at:
https://erik-engheim.medium.com/why-ev-fans-should-rethink-hydrogen-cars-6d5781a24a14
Butner, H. (Producer), & Cowern, D. (Director). (2021). Hydrogen vs. Battery Electric Cars [Motion Picture]. Youtube. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dWAO3vUn7nw&ab_channel=PhysicsGirl
Butner, H. (Producer), Cowern, D. (Writer), & Cowern, D. (Director). (2021). I Drove 1800 Miles in a Hydrogen Car [Motion Picture]. Youtube. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hghIckc7nrY&ab_channel=PhysicsGirl
Fitzgerald, J., & O'Bryan, N. (05, November 02). Fuel Cells: A Better Energy Source for Earth and Space. Retrieved from NASA: https://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/technology/fuel_cells.html
Hydrogen in Aviation, How Close is it? (2020, October 08). Retrieved from Airbus: https://www.airbus.com/en/newsroom/stories/2020-10-hydrogen-in-aviation-how-close-is-it
Kamiya, G. (2021). Energy Storage - more efforts needed. International Energy Agency.
LAB, A. (Director). (2019). DIY Hydrogen generator. Part 1: Electrolyzer [Motion Picture]. Youtube. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TfbvhoOg0WU&ab_channel=ALEXLAB
Muller, D. (Producer), & Muller, D. (Director). (2019). [Motion Picture]. Youtube. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GATuMWAFBUA&ab_channel=Veritasium
NASA. (2007, may 24). NASA citations pdf. Retrieved from The Development of Fuel Cell Technology for NASA’s Human Spaceflight Program: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20070021785/downloads/20070021785.pdf
Perritano, J. (2022, May 30). Does Hydrogen Destroy Metals? Retrieved from How Stuff Works: https://auto.howstuffworks.com/fuel-efficiency/alternative-fuels/hydrogen-destroy-metal.htm
Sammann, S., & McManus, B. (Directors). (2018). Hydrogen - The Fuel of the Future? [Motion Picture]. Youtube. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iPheEg-K2qc&ab_channel=RealEngineering
Sammann, S., & McManus, B. (Directors). (2018). The Truth About Hydrogen [Motion Picture]. Youtube. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f7MzFfuNOtY&t=784s&ab_channel=RealEngineering
Science Direct. (2022, may 28). Solid State Battery. Retrieved from Science Direct: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/materials-science/solid-state-battery
Sørensen, B. (2004). THE ORIGIN OF RENEWABLE ENERGY FLOWS. Science Direct, 29-209. Retrieved from THE ORIGIN OF RENEWABLE ENERGY FLOWS: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/hydrogen-burning
Stadler, A. (2020, September 17). Energy storage ‘101’: what is it, and why is it so important? Retrieved from Energetics' Insights: https://www.energetics.com.au/insights/thought-leadership/energy-storage-101-what-is-it-and-why-is-it-so-important
United Nations. (2020, November 9-19). COP26: Together for our planet. Retrieved from United Nations: https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/cop26