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The One Health Impacts of Trap-Neuter-Return

Institute for Human-Animal Connection

The Institute for Human Animal Connection

The Institute for Human-Animal Connection (IHAC) aims to improve the overall well-being of humans, animals, and the environment. This is done through innovative, scientifically sound research, and scholarship in therapeutic human-animal interactions, animals in communities and conservation social work. Informed by a systems view of social problems an guided by principals of efficacy, beneficence, and justice, our research provides novel insights into the relationships between humans, animals, and the environment we share.

Research Focus:

Humane Communities

Focus

Key Components:

  • a multi-system approach to addressing social problems
  • education and programming that promote and provide access to humane activities to individuals in their everyday lives
  • a cultural shift that recognizes the ways in which humane policies serve as a foundation upon which other public health
  • safety concerns can be addressed more holistically

Humane Communities will...

Adapt and expand upon the community’s existing programs to address issues of basic needs while supporting the advancement of higher order needs.

Measuring Impacts:

Measured via three areas: therapeutic human-animal interactions, animals in communities, and conservation social work.

Contributors

Contributors

Funders

Maddie's Fund

Watershed Animal Fund

IHAC Researchers

Principal Investigator

Kevin Morris

Research Associates

Sloane Hawes

Graduate Research Assistants

Anna Straus

Elizabeth Wheatall

Gina Thompson

Hannah Nibauer

Jordan Winczewski

Maddy Trainor

Mary Ramatici

Sara Harris

Volunteers

Caitlin Gill

Our Study: The One Health Impacts of Trap-Neuter Return (TNR)

What is Trap Neuter Return?

The Best Friends Animal Society defines it as: "A humane, non-lethal alternative to the trap-and-kill method of controlling cat populations. Trap-neuter-return (TNR) is a management technique in which homeless, free-roaming (community) cats are humanely trapped, evaluated and sterilized by a licensed veterinarian, vaccinated against rabies, and then returned to their original habitat.

Background

However there is ongoing controversy surrounding the impacts and implications of TNR...

Study Introduction

Introduction:

  • Without population management, urban cat populations could grow 18–20% per year (Miller et al., 2014).

  • Animal welfare workers, community members, veterinarians, public health workers and wildlife advocates all hold varying views on the best methods for cat population management. (Lohr et al., 2014; Loyd & Hernandez, 2012; Loyd & Miller, 2010).

  • Trap neuter and return (TNR) is a free roaming cat population management strategy that has undergone substantial investigation to analyze its effects, costs, and benefits.

  • Many existing studies exploring the effectiveness of TNR, or the impacts of free roaming cats, identify only one or two areas of impact at a time, like cost of cat population management strategies, opinions of different stakeholder groups on best practices, or the implications that free roaming cats have for public health or biodiversity conservation (Lohr et al., 2013; Loss et al., 2013; Afonso et. al, 2007; Peterson et al., 2012).

  • There is a growing need for conversations and consensus between conservation biologists, community members, animal welfare workers, veterinarians, and public health workers on best practices for cat population management (Lepczky et al., 2010)

This study was conducted using a One Health framework with the understanding that the health of humans, animals and the environment are inextricably connected (American Veterinary Medical Association, 2020). All areas of the interconnected social-ecological systems that we live in should be considered in order to identify best practices for the mitigating negative impacts and optimizing the positive impacts of free roaming cat populations (Hawes et al., 2019).

What Existing Literature Says About the Costs of TNR

Introduction cont.

  • When surveyed, those valuing animal welfare were more supportive of TNR versus those associated with conservation work, who valued TNR less (Loyd & Miller; Lohr et al., 2014).

  • One of the largest controversies with free roaming cats is their effect on wildlife. Cats have a large effect on the mortality rates of both bird and small mammal species, particularly on islands, where endemic and native species are frequently found (Mcruer et al., 2017; Loss et al., 2013; Duffy & Capece, 2012).

  • While there have been 83 successful programs that have eradicated cats from island ecosystems, none of these programs utilized the non-lethal TNR method, but rather utilized lethal methods such as poisoning bait, trapping, or shooting (Parkes et al., 2014). While this makes for a good experimental model, the methods used in island conditions are not easily repeatable in urban communities with free roaming cats.

  • Another concern with free roaming cats is the spread of disease, particularly Toxoplasma gondii. T. gondii, also known as toxoplasmosis, is a parasite that can infect both humans and several animal species. Intermediate hosts include animals like small rodents and birds, and when these animals are consumed by cats, the parasite can complete its life cycle (Afonso et al., 2007).

  • Depending on the scale of the population, TNR alone may not be enough to have a large enough effect on the amount of free roaming cats. In order to be effective, studies have shown that TNR programs need to be paired with public education programs (Natoli et al., 2006; Hurley & Levy, 2016).

  • Natoli et al. (2006) showed that TNR is ineffective without a decrease in abandonment rates of cats and the appropriate public education about overpopulation.

  • Because TNR tends to be a grassroots operation, there is often a lack of data collection and reporting to evaluate the impact of these programs (Spehar & Wolf, 2018). More research is needed on the benefits of outdoor cats, their effect on wildlife, and how effective TNR programs truly are in controlling populations (Wald & Jacobson, 2014; Longcore et al., 2009).

What Existing Literature Says About the Benefits of TNR

Introduction cont.

  • Benefits reduction in nuisance behavior such as aggression or urine marking, lower stress on the community’s animal shelters, improvement to free roaming outdoor cat health, and a decline in outdoor cat populations (Cafazzo et al., 2019; Hurley & Levy, 2016; Tan et al., 2017).

  • Community TNR programs also reduce free-roaming cat population size (Tan et al., 2017). Examples include the eradication of a 300-cat colony along a waterfront in Massachusetts (Sephar & Wolf, 2018) and a 39% decrease in adult cats during a TNR pilot program in New Zealand (Zito et al., 2018). TNR programs achieve this goal in part by increasing the percentage of sterilized cats in each community.

  • TVNR programs, or TNR programs that include vaccination and exams in addition to sterilization, improve the health of outdoor cat populations (Spehar & Wolf, 2019; Tan et al., 2017). In addition to vaccination, TVNR programs routinely include treatment of minor injuries and illnesses, administration of medication for parasites, and microchipping (Tan et al., 2017; Spehar & Wolf, 2019)

.

  • Robust TNR and TVNR programs can relieve the burden on community shelters by reducing cat intake and euthanasia, increasing capacity for sick or young cats, and acting as a community resource for nuisance issues with outdoor cats (Hurley & Levy, 2016; Levy et al., 2014; Spehar & Wolf, 2019).

  • In addition to the benefits of TNR, Wald and Jacobson (2014) propose that the benefits of outdoor cats in communities should also be further evaluated.

  • Wald et al. (2013) surveyed members of the public across four counties in Florida and showed that community members held positive attitudes towards free-roaming cats and believe that cats kill pest species, thus reducing the spread of disease.

  • Other studies suggest that certain communities enjoy seeing outdoor cats as a form of companionship and wish to continue viewing them outdoors (Mameno et al. 2017; Lohr & Lepczyk, 2013). Free-roaming cat caretakers in Tel Aviv, Israel reported feelings of emotional attachment, stress relief, and satisfaction when caring for cats (Finkler and Terkel, 2015).

Methods

Participant Selection

Data Collection

Data Analysis

Methods

Participant Selection

Recruitment Method: Participants were recruited via IHAC Community Based Research Assistants.

Target Sample Size: 18*

Inclusion Criteria: Participants must be either a community member or a service provider who (or whose agency) works directly with feral & outdoor cat populations.

*Sample size based on standard sample sizes for phenomenological studies (Creswell & Poth, 2018) and to include approximately equal community members and stakeholders representation in data set.

Participants

Data Collection Method

Data Collection

Interview Type:

Semi-structured interviews*

Interview Goals:

Gain information on participant views on preferred outdoor and feral cat management and their communities (human, animal, and environmental health).

Interview Question Themes:

The prevalence of outdoor and / or feral cats in the community | Factors contributing to preferred cat management strategies | Barriers to preferred outdoor cat management strategies | Impacts of outdoor cats on health of humans, animals, and the environment |

Access to human, animal, and environmental healthcare & welfare services

*To reduce researcher bias, researchers read prompts that were composed

to be open-ended, avoided leading questions, and focused on

positive, negative, and no impacts.

Data Analysis

Analysis

Participant interview transcripts were examined by graduate research assistants for broad themes using interpretive phenomenological qualitative analysis* approach to identify each participant's unique, lived experience and understanding of the phenomenon (Banonis, 1989).

Researchers utilized a seven-step process of data analysis (Diekelmann et al., 1989):

  • Read each transcript
  • Glean for overall meaning
  • Identify themes
  • Memo interpretive summaries of themes that arose
  • Code the content from the identified themes that emerged from the initial memoing process
  • Review the identified themes for their common meanings
  • Group themes together via identified constitutive content that linked the themes to one another

*Interpretive phenomenological qualitative analysis is a method of interview analysis that reviews each transcript independently to learn information about each participant's unique perspective on the topics in focus. These phenomenons, referred to as "codes", are viewed alongside the other transcripts' codes to determine themes amongst the sample.

Results

Results

Data analysis produced 675 codes that were categorized into five major themes, each with several subthemes. The prevalence of these themes were identified by their total saturation*. Themes identified the participants’ views on outdoor and feral cat management, their communities, and the environment.

Saturation is the measurement of how many times a code was identified within an interview. It should be noted that saturation measures the total number of codes, versus the number of unique codes, within the sample in focus.

Community Assets

Theme 1: Community Assets

This figure illustrates the saturation of codes among participants and is integral to the understanding of communities in focus. Represented in this figure are: 10 participants from Seattle, 4 participants from Granger, 3 participants from Madison, and 1 participant from Wilder producing a total saturation of 222 (non-unique) codes.

*Relative saturation for each subtheme was calculated by dividing each subtheme saturation for the study site classification (i.e. urban, rural) by the total saturation for that study site classification.

Participant Quotations

"

"Access to health services, transportation to health services, and everything involving health services is pretty limited."

"

"There's so much that impacts each other, but we're not necessarily talking to each other because we think, "That's that issue over there, and this is this issue over here. I work on this and you work on that." But there's so much overlap that I just wish there was more talking and communicating between organizations about all the things that they have in common so that maybe more could get done."

"

"I do not believe that we are receiving that [safe environment] in our community. Stray dogs running around is a safety concern, and I can’t go on walks with my kids because of the animal issue."

Preferred Management Strategies

Theme 2: Preferred Management Strategies

Represented are: 10 participants from Seattle, 4 participants from Granger, 3 participants from Madison, and 1 participant from Wilder, with a total saturation of 176 codes.

Participant Quotations: Support for TNR & TNVR

Participant Quotations: Euthanasia & Relocation

"

"The welfare of the cats is always going to be number one for us. After that, it's going to go like welfare of cats followed by what is most feasible for the community that's supporting that [cat] colony."

"[If a] cat enters the shelter system or comes to a clinic and is really sick or suffering and injured in a way that's not easily recoverable, then I do prefer euthanasia."

"

"Some of the difficulty in what we do in relocating cats is really stressful and difficult for them. We'd prefer for that to be "in and out and back to where they were" just because it's better for their stress levels and their health."

"We strongly believe in TNR. We know that it's what works. We know that there's a lot of good information out there that TNR is the right thing to do, especially for community cats since some community cats may be owned, meaning they have several owners. Like they're just a fun little neighborhood cat that needs to stop having babies. Beyond that, TNR is what really helps to reduce euthanasia in shelters."

"

"[T]he individual finally got the cats trapped and got rid of them and all of a sudden, he had a rodent problem."

"

"I've practiced TNR pretty much exclusively. Trap, Neuter, Return. Trap, neuter, vaccinate and return. …I did start doing TNR as a teenager when I was 16."

Participant Quotations: Barriers to TNR & TNVR

"

"It's education [and] assuming euthanasia is not an option, explaining to them that we can get [the cats] fixed. It's just really cool to see people--most people accept that. You need to listen to the people. You hear their concerns. If they don't like cats going in their yards, we brainstorm. It's a lot of working with the community on educating where these cats come from. Feral cats come from tame cats that have not been altered."

"

"[The TNR clinics] are closely booked nearly every day that we're open with request to open extra days. What prevents that from happening is probably what everybody else would say, which is funds. It's expensive. There is a lot of compassion fatigue that comes from it. It's not the best-paying field if you're a vet and you want to work in that field. It's definitely two-pronged. It's funds and it is incredibly hard to get people to come in here and want to commit to doing this. That is one thing that can be really tough about managing the feral cat population is that the people who get into it are very, very passionate about it and it can be hard sometimes to see all the problems that that can arise from it. "

"

"[T]he city does not have any animal control. It’s up to us to try and control it. "

Animal Impacts

Theme 3: Impacts on Animals

Represented are: 10 participants from Seattle, 3 participants from Granger, 3 participants from Madison, and 1 participant from Wilder, with a total saturation of 139 codes.

Participant Quotations: Impacts on Cats

"

"People are throwing rocks at [the cats] or trying to poison them. The biggest danger of course is traffic."

"

"Probably a lot of [the cats] getting hit by cars. There would be a lot starving to death, because nobody is there to feed them."

"

"Maybe even carrying diseases to non-feral cats in the community."

"

"I have seen what can happen when you have a large colony of cats that have not been spayed or neutered or vaccinated and how sick they can be."

Participant Quotations: Impacts on Wildlife

"

"All I know is that [cats] kill a lot of birds. [They kill] a lot of mice, though, and they catch a lot of mice, moles, a chipmunk or two, which I'm not fond of."

"

"The cats provide rodent control which is an environmentally friendly rodent control. [They reduce the] populations of critters that people really don't want."

"

"[The ones] impacting the wildlife population are the humans, not the cats."

"

"[T]he spay neuter programs exist is because we don't want to see cats killing animals or songbirds. Outdoor cats are number two in terms of killing songbirds."

Community Member Impacts

Theme 4: Impacts on Humans

Represented are: 8 participants from Seattle, 4 participants from Granger, 2 participants from Madison, and 1 participant from Wilder, with a total saturation of 85 codes.

Participant Quotations: Impacts on Community Members

"

"A lot of it has to do with the fact that every time they trap, neuter, and return, you educate the community about, "It's important that you take care of these cats and you don't let them get pregnant and you do this and you do that." Part of TNR is to educate people and basically just point to people, "Here's the way the cats are and this is how you can deal with them." I've seen a significant improvement in that aspect of acceptance of communities."

"

"There's a lot of fallacies out there about feral cats causing disease, whether it gets transmitted to people or causes diseases to be transmitted to owned cats in the neighborhood that are allowed to go outdoors. Generally, feral cats that are spayed and neutered and have caretakers in the community are every bit as healthy as your indoor outdoor cat and possibly even healthier."

"

Participant Quotations: Impacts on Caretakers

"Because [if cat populations aren't managed], there's going to be an overpopulation of cats running around and causing [human] health problems, as far as feces wise."

"

"It tends to be poor folks who take on this that don't really have the money or the resources to feed these animals and get them care. I think feral cat care comes down to folks who are experiencing oppression and facing a lot of barriers in their life already. I know of two folks who are homeless in this area that are caring for multiple cats [and] you see the burden falling on folks who are already experiencing intersectional marginalized identities."

"

"[Feral and outdoor cats] can also be companions for people who are just out working in their yard or gardening. We feel like pets have a positive impact on human health as far as companionship for humans."

"

"That's also just really sad to see animals who are super sick. I also have seen the pain and sorrow that can be taken on by caregivers who feel they don't have resources and that it's their job and their sole responsibility to care for these cats. You can see, not even secondary trauma, just first-hand trauma in someone that is really empathetic and trying to find purpose through caring for a large colony of cats. "

Environmental Impacts

Theme 5: Environmental Impacts

"

"[Unneutered male cats are] spraying and making the neighbors mad."

"

"[It] becomes a neighborhood problem because of the noise associated with the fighting and the mating, the odor from unneutered males."

Represented are 2 participants from Seattle producing a total saturation of 2 codes.

Note: While there was a total saturation of 52 codes across all sites discussing environmental impacts, Seattle participants were unique in their discussion of concerns specifically related to the environmental impacts of feral & outdoor cats.

Discussion

Implications of TNR for Human Community Members

  • In this study, notably, all participants that were interviewed supported TNR as the primary method for managing outdoor cat populations. Interview participants’ reasons to support TNR as a preferred management strategy came from considerations for the welfare of cats and citing personal success in using TNR as a management method.

  • Studies show that TNR can be a method that promotes outdoor cat welfare by enhancing the overall health of community cats through access to care, disease prevention, and treatment for illness or injuries (Spehar & Wolf, 2019; Tan et al., 2017).

  • People that value animal welfare, own cats, and have positive associations with outdoor cats are also more likely to support TNR as a preferred method (Loyd & Miller, 2010; Lohr et al., 2014; Wald et al., 2013). Wolf and Schaffner (2019) state that support for TNR reflects a less anthropocentric view of cat management and that TNR is a method that factors in outdoor cats’ intrinsic value and welfare outside of human needs, echoing the statements of some interview participants.

  • One participant from Madison and four participants from Seattle stated that increases in public awareness regarding shelter euthanasia practices anecdotally led to more support for TNR. Two participants in Seattle mentioned the emotional harm that cat euthanasia causes in human communities. While it is a highly debated topic, the actual impact of community and pet cats is hard to determine (Rand et al., 2018). The human impacts of TNR versus other management strategies like euthanasia or no management may vary with people’s different attitudes and beliefs towards outdoor cats (Loyd & Miller; Lohr et al., 2014)

Discussion

Implications of TNR for Clinics and Animal Welfare Professionals

  • Barriers to TNR programs also exist as stated by interview participants including potential impacts on TNR clinics, funding for TNR and personal services, legal and language barriers, and a need for community educational programming

  • Participants from Seattle and Madison noted that TNR clinics are frequently overbooked and lack funding, leading to higher levels of stress and compassion fatigue in employees.

  • Young and Thompson (2019) cited examples of compassion fatigue in employees and volunteers involved in TNR programs. Stigmatized-care positions, lack of support for managing stress or compassionate fatigue, burnout, and absence of community support for their work were listed as stressors leading to compassion fatigue in this field (Young & Thompson, 2019).

  • The literature also shows that a lack of funds both for individuals seeking pet care and for providing veterinary services exist as barriers to successfully implementing TNR programs as is mentioned by some interviewees (Poss and Everett, 2006; Hurley & Levy, 2016). Implications of TNR for Clinics and Animal Welfare Professionals

  • Barriers to TNR programs also exist as stated by interview participants including potential impacts on TNR clinics, funding for TNR and personal services, legal and language barriers, and a need for community educational programming

  • Participants from Seattle and Madison noted that TNR clinics are frequently overbooked and lack funding, leading to higher levels of stress and compassion fatigue in employees.

  • The literature also shows that a lack of funds both for individuals seeking pet care and for providing veterinary services exist as barriers to successfully implementing TNR programs as is mentioned by some interviewees (Poss and Everett, 2006; Hurley & Levy, 2016).

Discussion cont.

Implications of TNR for Wildlife and the Environment

  • Participants from Seattle, Granger, and Wilder all discuss the potential impact of cats on wildlife, specifically to birds or small mammals. Participants from Seattle and Madison specifically mention that cats catch or kill a large quantity of species including birds, moles, mice, and chipmunks. Some participants remarked that they did not want to see cats killing wildlife while others remained neutral about this issue

  • Current research about attitudes towards free-roaming cats affecting wildlife show that members of the public are divided in that some community members prioritize conservation and wildlife while others are more concerned for the welfare of outdoor cats (Farnworth et al., 2011; Wald et al., 2017; Loyd & Hernandez, 2012).

  • Several interview participants from Seattle, Granger, and Madison mention that the impact of outdoor cats on wildlife is less detrimental to the environment than the effects of human development and urbanization. An example of this is window collisions by bird species. Human development and expansion into natural areas result in birds colliding with buildings, the mortality of which results in the loss of millions of birds each year (Loss et al., 2014; Klem, 2015). Other studies show that human development causing habitat fragmentation actually makes some species more susceptible to cat predation (Askins 1995; Longcore et al; 2009; Wilcove, 1985)

  • Participants in this study explicitly name buildings and development as a greater culprit of environmental harm than outdoor cats. Individuals interviewed in this study also noted how predation could be viewed as a benefit of outdoor cat populations, since these cats effectively act as a free and environmentally friendly form of rodent or pest control. There is certainly evidence that cats prey on small mammal species like rodents (Pearre and Maas, 1998; Mcruer et al., 2017)

  • Three participants from Seattle and Granger stated that environmental issues from cats will only be mitigated through the collaboration of conservation and animal welfare professionals. Unfortunately, the tension between these groups is well documented and differing values and preferences for management often lead to conflict among professionals in these fields (Loyd & Miller, 2010; Loss & Marra, 2017; Peterson et al., 2012; Wald et al., 2013). Ultimately the broader implications of outdoor cat management and the environment relate to indirect effects on biodiversity or ecosystem services that contribute to overall environmental health

.

Study Limitations

Study Limitations

Methods: Limitations to Qualitative Phenomenological approach include researcher bias and subjectivity which is inherent amidst best practice for mitigation, phenomenological results are often viewed as non-generalizable and non-reproducable, and a small sample size when compared to standard quantitative methods.

Sample: This study was conducted in four locations across the continental U.S.. Communities surveyed all experience cold winters that may cause a difference in cat or wildlife populations. Many studies in existing literature were conducted on islands, where isolation can allow TNR impacts to be more easily measured (Dias et al. 2017). Additionally, urban study participants composed 72% of the sample size, with further disparity among individual study sites.

Inconsistencies With Existing Literature: Current literature complicates the issue of preferred methods for managing free-roaming cats. There is conflicting literature that supports TNR as a successful method in some cases while other studies show that lethal or alternative methods are cheaper or more effective than TNR. As noted by one interview participant, consensus is needed between different professional organizations and local government or animal control operations on preferred management methods for free-roaming cats because this issue represents a cross-disciplinary public, animal, and environmental health issue.

References

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