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Before farming and brewing of alchohol, animals would find rotten fruits that were being eaten by yeasts and micro organisms and gave off ethanol which is in alchohol leaving the animals feeling the effects of alchohol/ethenol.
This is when people began to farm rather than hunt and/or gather. This allowed them to create a surplus of food so they could build cities whereas in the gathering days, they would be gathering as much food/calories as they were using so they had no surplus.
Humans started brewing alchohol in pottery jars in china around 6600 B.C. They made this alchohol originally from things around them along with things that they farmed like grains and fruits. This was just one step foward from farming that humans experienced that is now a world wide "practice".
Large leaps in the production of common crops were made. This allowed for bigger towns and cities due to the surplus of crops and food. It also allowed people to have other specialties other than necesities like gatherers, farmers, Doctors, and so on. This created a paradigm shift as it made major changes in the way that humans went about life and the food surplus allowed us to create bigger cities.
The Binomial System was created by Carl Linnaeus and made a huge change in the world of life science. It allowed humans the ability to see all living and nonliving things on earth on a single plane using different names. Let's say you found something; first, you must decide it's "kingdom" (Animal, Vegeteble, Mineral) then it's "class" (Mammal, Fish, Bird, etc.) and then it's "order" based on different characteristics.
The first vaccine was created by Edward Jenner on a hunch that injecting a bacteria from a similar virus to small pox into someone would provide neccesary protection to save said person from small pox. This worke dand created the worls first vaccine and this idea was used and better developed following into history.
Before 1799 there was no such thing as biology. It was called natural history. Natural history was just like biology except it was just observation based. This idea of the way to look at "natural history" was based off of the work of aristotle but was later developed into biology which incorporated more Scientific reasoning and testings and evidence into the field of study for example, the early discovery of trees growing by drinking water not eating soil.
This was the theory that illnes like cholera came from air particles, vapors, and other "dirty airs". It was the widely accepted explaination for these diseases and was later proven false by Doctor John Snow. However, just because it was false, doesn't mean it was useless. This theory was used in reasoning to facilitate airflow and cleansliness in hospitals which was important as well but for different reasons.
In 1859 Louis Pasteur, a French microbiologist hypothesized germ theory, the idea that there were micro organisms that lived on things and caused illness rather than the miasma theory which delt with strictly vapors and air. Although it had not been proven and widely accepted in the science communtiy, germ theory was a very large step in the right direction in the medical field.
"The Origin of Species" by Charles Darwin discussed Darwin's theory of natural selection. This theory also helped his argument about the reality of evolution. In the 500 page book he explains, in short, that life is the survival of the fittest. The "fittest pass their traits down and slowly over time natural selection or survival of the fittest modifies the population to have helpful traits to protect their survival and ease of life.
Germ Theory was proven by many scientists over a long period of time (the mid-late 1800s). Among them was Robert Koch, who in 1884, proved through many experiments that a specific micro organism caused disease by isolating the bacteria which caused cholera. This was a major step foward in science as it was a paradigm shift in the world of life science. Now people accepted that it was micro organisms that caused disease rather than just vapors.
Population Genetics is the study of how genes differ in varying populations or towns/cities/countries. Population Genetics was important to life science as it built upon Wallace's invention of biogeography. Biogeography was the idea of studying plants animals and geological formations as one whole.
Scientists knew that there was a gene passed down in chromosomes but they didn't really know it's structure or really what it was. Linus Pauling showed that most proteins naturally form little spirals/helices. He later hypothesized that DNA was made up of three helices which later proved to be incorrect. James Watson and Francis Crick are well known for discovering the structure of DNA however Rosalind Franklin played a huge roll in proving them wrong and pointing them in the right direction toward the double helix but died of cancer before she could tell the story. The three later figured out that the bases were adenine (A), guanine (G), cytisine (C) and thymine (T). These correspoded to each other with two bases, one per helix with A matching with T and G matching with C which allowed the DNA to communicate and transmit information down to generations with minimal errors due to copy mistakes which were called mutations.
The discovery of rDNA allowed scientists to splice DNA and combine it with another species among other uses. For example, another use was synthetic insulin from E. Coli bacteria. Before rDNA could be used to create synthetic insulin, people with diabetes would get insulin from other sources and animals however synthetic insulin is more helpful and pure for the circumstances. It was oringinally discovered by Paul Berg, Stanley Cohen, and Herbert Boyer when they published the results of their rDNA experiments. It works by inserting an isolated piece of DNA into another DNA allowing scientists to introduce new or different characteristics into different organisms.
The purpose of the human genome project (HGP) was to sequence the entire human genome. It was meant to do this in 15 years with $3 billion worth of funding. This 15 year deadline was cut short due to a race "challenged" by the private company, Celera after 7 years into the deadline. The HGP's approach was to divide the genome inot 150k base pair chunks which they inserted into a bacterial chromosome and cloned them and fingerprinted so that the scientists could see where they overlapped without seeing the base pairs so that scientists could mark each pieces place in the genome. They did this in labs around the world so that other scientists could see. Then they split up these fragments into 1,000 base pieces that overlapped and they used the sanger method to sequence each piece. Also, all of their data was publicly published within 24 hours of them gaining the data. This allowed Celera to keep up easier and they took a different approach in keeping their data less public. In 2001 both research teams published papers of over 90% of the sequenced genome.
Dolly the sheep was the first mammal to have been cloned from an adult cell in a lab. She was born at the Roslin Institute in Scotland. Dolly was named after singer and actress Dolly Parton. The cells had been taken from the udder of a 6 year old female sheep and cultured in a lab using microscopic needles. Scientists grew these eggs until eventually one of them gave birth to the clone sheep, Dolly, 148 days later on July 5th, 1996.
CRISPR, in short, helps identify unwanted DNA and snip that DNA and replace a part of it to make it useful. This could create protection from diseases and/or create new better mutations like wings, webbed feet and other such things. The CRISPR method is carried out as follows, The virus enters the bacterium, cas proteins cut the DNA to fit the virus' DNA. This is then copied into RNA which is used by cas9, the protein that acts like a scout for the viral dna. When it finds a match, cas9 destroys the DNA. HOwever scientists learned that this can target other DNA not just viral ones.
mRNA created a paradigm shift in the medical area or at least for vaccines. We used to make vaccines with a sample viral antigen or a part of them and it took a while to make these vaccines because we had to first weaken the virus. That is why it took 10 years to create the vaccine for measles. We had to grow the antigen to weaken it enoguh to put it into people's bodies without harming the person. With mRNA, scientists were able to just download the sequence of the DNA to create an mRNA strand to allow our cells to create these antigens to fight off and become immune to as the use of mRNA is to use a copy of the DNA to create proteins rather than taking just the DNA and possibly losing it. This allows scientists to create vaccines much faster just liek how after the sequence came out for covide, the moderna vaccine was created less than a month after.
“Animation 27.1 Basic Principle of Recombinant DNA Technology.” YouTube, YouTube, 27 Dec. 2020, www.youtube.com/watch?v=OpU_CQ0pFyQ.
crashcourse. “Biology before DARWIN: Crash Course History of Science #19.” YouTube, YouTube, 27 Aug. 2018, www.youtube.com/watch?v=K4CKmYSMT_0.
crashcourse. “Biotechnology: Crash Course History of Science #40.” YouTube, YouTube, 18 Mar. 2019, www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qo9gcZ0r8k8.
crashcourse. “Darwin and Natural Selection: Crash Course History of SCIENCE #22.” YouTube, YouTube, 1 Oct. 2018, www.youtube.com/watch?v=dfsUz2O2jww.
crashcourse. “Genetics and the Modern Synthesis: Crash Course History of Science #35.” YouTube, YouTube, 4 Feb. 2019, www.youtube.com/watch?v=aax12eYKd4s.
crashcourse. “The Agricultural Revolution: Crash Course World HISTORY #1.” YouTube, YouTube, 26 Jan. 2012, www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yocja_N5s1I.
crashcourse. “The Century of the Gene: Crash Course History of Science #42.” YouTube, YouTube, 1 Apr. 2019, www.youtube.com/watch?v=TUvquCOGs3U.
“Dolly the Sheep Becomes First Successfully CLONED MAMMAL.” History.com, A&E Television Networks, 9 Feb. 2010, www.history.com/this-day-in-history/first-successful-cloning-of-a-mammal.
scishow. “Why It Actually Took 50 Years to Make COVID MRNA VACCINES.” YouTube, YouTube, 3 Feb. 2021, www.youtube.com/watch?v=XPeeCyJReZw.
TEDEducation. “A Brief History of Alcohol - Rod Phillips.” YouTube, YouTube, 2 Jan. 2020, www.youtube.com/watch?v=y5XEwTDlriE.
TEDEducation. “How a Few Scientists Transformed the Way We Think about Disease - Tien Nguyen.” YouTube, YouTube, 20 Oct. 2015, www.youtube.com/watch?v=N9LC-3ZKiok.
TEDEducation. “How CRISPR Lets You Edit DNA - Andrea M. Henle.” YouTube, YouTube, 24 Jan. 2019, www.youtube.com/watch?v=6tw_JVz_IEc.
TEDEducation. “How Do Vaccines Work? - Kelwalin Dhanasarnsombut.” YouTube, YouTube, 12 Jan. 2015, www.youtube.com/watch?v=rb7TVW77ZCs.
TEDEducation. “The Race to Sequence the Human Genome - Tien Nguyen.” YouTube, YouTube, 12 Oct. 2015, www.youtube.com/watch?v=AhsIF-cmoQQ.