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Theories of Crime Causation

Biological Theories

Biological Theories

Biological theories emphasized that criminal behavior results from a complex interplay of social and biological factors.

It attempts to explain behaviors contrary to societal expectations through examination of individual characteristics.

Biosocial Theory

Lesson 1: Biosocial Theory

Biosocial theorists believe that it is the interaction between predisposition and environment that produces criminality.

Biochemical Factors

Biochemical Factors

Biochemical factors stress on the relationship between antisocial behavior and biochemical makeup and that body chemistry can govern behavior and personality, including levels of aggression and depression. For example, exposure to lead in the environment and subsequent lead ingestion has been linked to antisocial behaviors

Hormonal Levels

Antisocial behavior allegedly peaks in the teenage years because of hormonal activity is at its highest level during this period.

Research also suggests that increased levels of the male androgen and testosterone are responsible for excessive levels of violence among teenage boys.

Neurological Dysfunction

Imbalance in the central nervous system’s chemical and hormonal activity has been linked to antisocial behavior and drug abuse.

Neurotransmitters are chemical compounds that influence brain activity.

Abnormal levels of some neurotransmitters are related to aggression and violence.

Minimal brain dysfunction is defined as the damage to the brain itself that causes antisocial behavior injurious to the individual’s lifestyle and social adjustment.

Minimal Brain Dysfunction

Genetic influences focus on the idea that individuals who share the same genes are alike in personality regardless of how they are reared, while the rearing environment induces little or no personality resemblance.

Genetic Influences

A number of studies found out that parental criminality and deviance powerfully influence delinquent behavior.

Donald J. West and David P. Farrington (1986) made a study and found out that a significant number of delinquent youths have criminal fathers.

Parent-Child Similarities

Biosocial theorists have compared the behavior of twin and non-twin siblings and found out that the twins, who share more genetic material, are also more similar in their behavior.

Sibling and Twin Similarities

identical genetic makeup

Monozygotic Twins

share only about 50% of genetic combinations

fraternal Dizygotic Twins

Adoptees share many of the behavioral and intellectual characteristics of their biological parents despite the social and environmental conditions found in their adoptive homes.

Adoption Studies

Arousal Theory

Lesson 2:

Arousal Theory

Environmental factors influence the brain’s level of arousal.

When a person’s arousal level is extremely low and feels bored, that person will engage in activities that will increase his arousal level, such as going out with friends or watching a car race. When arousal level is too high, such as when he is too anxious or overstressed, he often resorts to engaging in relaxation methods such as reading a book, getting a massage, or meditating.

Life-Course Theory

Lesson 3:

Life Course Theory

the theory mainly emphasizes that disruption in life’s major transitions can be destructive and ultimately can promote criminality.

Latent Trait Theory

Lesson 4: Latent Trait Theory

human traits alone do not produce criminality and that it is a combination of environmental factors such as family life, educational attainment, economic factors and neighborhood conditions. Physical or mental traits are, therefore, but one part of a large pool of environmental, social, and personal factors that account for criminality.

Physical or mental traits are, therefore, but one part of a large pool of environmental, social, and personal factors that account for criminality.

Family Studies

This theory focuses on finding evidence that criminal tendencies were based on genetics.

Conclusion: traits deemed socially inferior could be passed down from generation to generation.

Lesson 5:

Family Studies

Jukes Family

Ada Juke but publicly known as “Margaret, the mother of criminals”

Dugdale made some tentative inductions based on his study of the Jukes family line when it comes to committing crime:

1. The burden of crime is found in the illegitimate lines;

2. The legitimate lines marry into a crime;

3. The eldest child has a tendency to be the criminal of the family;

4. Crime chiefly follows the male line; and

5. The longest line of crime are along the line of the eldest.

Kallikak Family

Feeblemindedness can be hereditary.

Somatotyping Theory

Lesson 6:

Somatotyping Theory

A theory which associates body physique to behavior and criminality.

Ernst Kretschmer

Kretschmer constituted 3 principal types of body physiques:

1. Asthenic - lean, slightly build, narrow shoulders

2. Athletic - medium to tall, strong, muscular

3. Pyknic - medium height, rounded figure, massive neck and broad face.

Sheldon's Somatotyping

Endomorphs - short, fat & rounded body

Ectomorphs - thin and lean body

Mesomorphs - strong and muscular body

William Sheldon Jr.

Hooton's suggested that human somatotype can determine which type of crime a person will commit

Earnest Hooton

tall-slender men - murder and robbery

tall-medium heavy men - forgery

tall heavy men - first degree murder

medium height-heavy - antisocial behavior

short-slender - burglary and larceny

short-medium heavy - arson

short-heavy men - sex offenses

Physiognomy

Lesson 7:

Physiognomy

deals with the study of facial features and their relation to human behavior.

according to Lombroso, criminals often have huge jaws and strong canine teeth

Phrenology

Phrenology is a theory of brain and science of character reading.

It is the study of the conformation of the skull as indicative of mental faculties and traits of character.

Lesson 8:

Phrenology

Nature Theory

Lesson 9:

Nature Theory

Nature theory holds that low intelligence is genetically determined and inherited.

Goddard concluded that many prisoners where "feebleminded" and at least half of all juvenile delinquents were mentally defective.

Classical Theories

Classical Theory

Classical theories of crime causation hold primarily that the people’s decision to commit crime is a matter of choice. Because it was assumed that people had freewill to choose their behavior, those who violated the law were motivated by personal needs such as greed, revenge, survival, and hedonism.

Rational Choice Theory

Lesson 1:

Rational Choice Theory

Rational Choice Theory holds that a person will engage in criminal behavior after weighing the consequences and benefits of his/her actions.

Criminal behavior is a rational choice made by a motivated offender who perceives that the chances of gain outweigh any possible punishment or loss.

Routine Activity Theory

Lesson 2:

Routine Activity Theory

Cohen and Felson viewed that crime is a “normal” function of the routine activities of modern living, that is, offenses can be expected if there is a motivated offender and a suitable target that is not protected by capable guardians.

This theoretical explanation is primarily focused on providing information regarding who is more or less likely to be a crime victim.

Lifestyle Theory

Lesson 3:

Lifestyle Theory

The main concept of lifestyle theory is that people may become crime victims because their lifestyle increases their exposure to criminal offenders.

Lifestyle theory presents that a person may become a potential suspect because of the presence of potential target.

General & Specific Deterrence Theory

Lesson 4:

General & Specific Deterrence Theory

General Deterrence theory is aimed at making potential criminals fear the consequences of crime showing that crime does not pay.

Specific deterrence theory holds that if offenders are punished so severely, the experience will convince then not to repeat their illegal acts.

Victim Precipitation Theory

Lesson 5:

Victim Precipitation Theory

Victim precipitation theory viewed that some people may actually initiate the confrontation that eventually leads to their injury or death.

The concept of victim offender interaction can be classified either active or passive precipitation.

Active Precipitation

Active Precipitation

occurs when victims act provocatively, use threats or fighting words, or even attacks the offender first.

For example, a person shouts and utters profane language at his enemy, however the latter has a knife and thus he stabs the former to death.

Passive Precipitation

Passive Precipitation

occurs when the victim exhibits some personal characteristics that unknowingly either threaten or encourages the attacker.

For example, Bee who has tattoos all around his body maybe a threat to somebody especially if Bee is already drunk. Even though he did nothing wrong, the other person got threatened may attack him leading either to his injury or immediate death.

Incapacitation Theory

Incapacitation theory stands to reason that if more criminals are sent to prison or keeping known criminals out of circulation the crime rate should go down. This theory supported the idea of imprisoning the criminals.

Lesson 6:

Incapacitation Theory

Psychological Theories

Psychological theories expressed that criminal behavior, was the product of “unconscious” forces operating within a person’s mind. According to this group of theories, conflict that occur at various psychosexual stages of determining might impact an individual’s ability to operate normally as an adult.

Psychodynamic Theory

&

Psychosexual Stages of Human Development

Lesson 1

Psychodynamic or psychoanalytic psychology was proposed by Sigmund Freud.

This theory holds that the human personality is controlled by unconscious mental processes developed in early childhood. It argues that human personality contains three major components, namely: id, ego and superego.

Psychodynamic Theory

Id

dictates the needs and desire (it operates under pleasure principle)

Id

Superego

counteracts the id by fostering feelings of morality (morality principle).

It is divided into two (2) parts: conscience and ego ideal.

Superego

Ego

evaluates the reality of a position of these two extremes (reality principle). If these three components are properly balanced, the individual can lead a normal life.

Ego

Psychosexual Stages of Human Development

Psychosexual Stages

The most basic human drive present at birth is eros, the instinct to preserve and create life. Eros is expressed sexually. Consequently, very early in their development, human experience sexuality at every stage, expressed by seeking pleasure through various parts of the body.

Oral Stage

a child attains pleasure by sucking and biting.

First Year of Life: Oral Stage

Anal Stage

the focus of sexual attention is on the elimination of bodily waste

2nd & 3rd year of life:

Anal Stage

Phallic Stage

3rd Year of Life:

Phallic Stage

The phallic stage occurs during the third year when children focus their attention on their genitals. Males begin to have sexual feelings for their mothers (the Oedipus complex) and girls for their fathers (the Electra complex)

Latency Stage

During this period, feelings of sexuality are repressed until the genital stage.

6th year of life:

Latency stage

Genital Stage

this marks the beginning of adult sexuality.

Puberty:

Genital Stage

Behavioral Theory

Lesson 2

The behavioral theory is concerned with the study of observable behavior rather than unconscious processes. It focuses on particular stimuli and how people respond to that stimuli.

It also maintains that human actions are developed through learning experiences, and that behavior is earned when it is rewarded and extinguished by negative reactions or punishment.

Social Learning Theory

3 sources of aggresiveness

It was created by Albert S. Bandura, a Canadian psychologist who argued that people are not actually born with the ability to act violently but that they learn to be aggressive through their life experiences.

Bandura claimed that people learn to act aggressively when, as children, they model their behavior after the violent acts of adults.

Lesson 3

Family Members

Bandura reports that children from families where parents shoe aggressive behaviors inside their homes would likely show similar behaviors when dealing with others.

Environmental Experience

People who reside in areas where violence is a daily occurrence are more likely to act violently than those who dwell in low-crime areas which norm stresses or show conventional behavior.

Mass Media

Films and television shows, which are accessible to people of all ages and social status, commonly depict violence graphically. Moreover, in mass media, violence is often portrayed as an acceptable behavior, especially for heroes who never have to face legal consequences for their actions.

Cognitive Theory

Lesson 4

It focuses on mental processes – the way people perceive and mentally represents the world around them.

Adolescents who use information properly, who are better conditioned to make reasoned judgements, and who can make quick and reasoned decisions when facing emotion-laden are the ones that can avoid antisocial behavior choices.

Cognitive Development Theory

Jean William Fritz Piaget, who was the first to make a systematic study of the acquisition of understanding in children based on his cognitive development theory. He hypothesized that a child’s reasoning processes develop in an orderly manner, from birth onwards and it has 4 stages.

Cognitive Development Theory

Moral Development Theory

Lesson 5

Lawrence A Kohlberg expanded Piaget’s theory of cognitive development and applied the concept of development stages to issues in criminology.

He suggested that people travel through stages of moral development and that it is possible that serious offenders have a moral orientation that differs from those law-abiding citizens.

Moral development theory suggests that people who obey the law simply to avoid punishment or who have outlooks mainly characterized by self-interest are more likely to commit crimes than those who view the law as something that benefits all of society and who honor the rights of others. Kohlberg's stages of development are as follows:

Intergenerational Transmission Theory

Lesson 6

Intergenerational transmission refers to the socialization and social learning that helps to explain the ways in which children growing up in a violent family learn violent roles and, subsequently, may play out the roles of victim or victimizer in their own adult families as adults.

Intergenerational transmission theory states that criminal and antisocial parents tent to have delinquent and antisocial children

Alternative Theory

Lesson 7

Alternative theory focuses on assortative mating where female offenders tend to cohabit with or get married to male offenders. Children with two criminal parents are likely to be disproportionally antisocial.

There are two main classes of explanations concerning why similar people tend to get married, cohabit, or become sexual partners.

Social Homogamy

where convicted people tend to choose each other as mates because of physical and social proximity; they meet each other in the same schools, neighborhoods, clubs, pubs, and so on.

Phenotypic Assortment

Phenotypic Assortment

where people examine each other’s personality and behavior and choose partners who are similar in themselves.

Differential Association-Reinforcement Theory

Lesson 8

This theory suggests that (1) the presence of criminal behavior depends on whether or not it is rewarded or punished and (2) the most meaningful rewards and punishment are those given by groups that are important in an individuals’ life i.e. the peer group, the family, teachers in school, etc.

Eysenck’s Conditioning Theory

Eyesenck in his theory of conditioning claims that all human personalities may be seen in three dimensions such as psychoticism, extroversion and neuroticism.

Lesson 9

Psychoticism

Those who score high on measures of psychoticism are aggressive, egocentric, and impulsive.

Psychoticism

Extroversion

Those who score high on measures of extroversion are sensation-seeking, dominant, and assertive.

Extroversion

Neuroticism

While those who score high on measures of neuroticism may be describe as having low self-esteem, excessive anxiety and wide mood swings.

Neuroticism

Integrated Theory

Lesson 10

Integrated theory has been proposed by James Q. Wilson and Richard Julius Herrnstein. They explain predatory street crime by showing how human nature develops from the interplay of psychological, biological and social factors.

The main concepts of this theory is that the genes and environment are factors for some individuals to form the kind of personality that is likely to commit crimes

Maternal Deprivation and Attachment Theory

Lesson 11

Edward John M. Bowlby who expressed the notion that a child needs warmth and affection from his/her mother or a mother substitute.

Bowlby emphasized that the most important phenomenon to social development takes place after the birth of any mammal and that is the construction of an emotional bond between the infant and his mother. When a child is separated from the mother or is rejected by her anxious attachment results. Anxious attachment affects the capacity to be affectionate and to develop intimate relationships with others. Habitual criminals, it is claimed, typically have an ability to form bonds of affection.

Sociological Theories

It explains how a certain individual acquires criminal or undesirable behavior; it describes how the agents of socialization such as family, environment, schools, mass media, and peer groups contribute to or affect the behavior of a specific individual; and it would also somehow manifest as to how a person responds or reacts with regard to the conduct displayed by other persons whom he or she socializing with.

Social Disorganization Theory

Lesson 1

Social disorganization theory was created by Clifford R. Shaw and Henry D. Mckay who linked crime rates to neighborhood ecological characteristics.

Shaw and Mckay’s main contention is that the primary causes of criminal behavior were neighborhood disintegration and slum conditions, places which they called transitional neighborhoods or places ridden by poverty. Such places also suffer high rates of population turnover and are incapable of inducing residents to remain failing to defend the neighborhoods against criminal groups.

Concentric Zone Theory

Concentric zone theory was pioneered by Ernest W. Burgess and Robert E. Park however, it was Clifford R. Shaw and Henry D. McKay who noted that distinct ecological areas has developed in the city of Chicago comprising a series of 5 concentric circles or zones, and that there were stable and significant differences in interzone crime rates.

Lesson 2

Anomie Theory

Lesson 3

David Emile Durkheim, introduced the term “anomie”, which derived from the Greek word nomos which means without norms.

According to Durkheim, an anomic society is one in which rules of behavior (norms) have broken down or become inoperative during periods of rapid social change or social crisis such as war or famine. Anomie most likely occurs in societies that are moving forward from mechanical solidarity to organic solidarity.

Durkheim maintains that crimes are not only normal for society but are necessary. Without crime, there could be no evolution in law.

Mechanical solidarity is defined as a characteristics from pre-industrial society, which is held together by traditions, shared values, and unquestioned beliefs.

mechanical solidarity

organic solidarity

organic solidarity refers to the post-industrial system of society in which the place is highly developed and dependent upon the division of labor and people are connected by their interdependent needs for each other’s services and production.

Strain Theory

Lesson 4

Robert K. Merton holds that crime is a function of the conflict between the goals people have and the means they can use to legally obtain that goals. Consequently, those who failed to attain their goals because of inadequate means would feel anger, frustration, and resentment, which are referred to as strain and that those people who are in strain or pressure may develop criminal or delinquent solutions to the problem of attaining goals.

Relative Deprivation Theory

Lesson 5

This theory was proposed by Judith R. Blau and Peter M. Blau which clearly emphasizes that a sharp division between the rich and the poor creates an atmosphere of envy and mistrust. Criminal motivation is fueled both by perceived humiliation and the perceived right to humiliate a victim in return, accordingly, lower-class people might feel both deprived and embittered when they compare their life circumstances to those of the more affluent. The constant frustration suffered by the deprived individuals because of their economic status may lead to aggression and hostility and, may result to violence and crime.

General Strain Theory

Lesson 6

Robert Agnew reformulated the strain theory of Robert Merton and suggests that criminality is the direct result of negative affective states – the anger, frustration, depression, disappointment, and other adverse emotions that derive from strain.

He finds that negative affective states are produced by a variety of sources of strains, such as:

1. Strain caused by failure to achieve positively valued goods.

2. Strain caused by disjunction of expectations and achievements.

3. Removal of positively valued stimuli.

4. Presentation of negative stimuli.

Cultural Deviance Theory

This theory combines the effects of social disorganization and strain to explain how people living in deteriorated neighborhoods react to social isolation and economic deprivation. Because of the draining frustrating and dispiriting experiences, members of the lower class create an independent subculture with its own set of rules and values. This lower-class subculture stresses excitement, toughness, risk-talking, fearlessness, and immediate gratification. Subcultural norms such as being tough followed the lower-class may tend to clash with conventional values – the norms set by the society.

Lesson 7

Delinquent Subculture Theory

Lesson 8

Albert K. Cohen's stated that delinquent behavior of lower-class youth is actually a protest against the norms and values of the middle-class U.S. culture. Because the social conditions make them incapable of achieving success legitimately, lower-class youths experience a form of culture conflict that Cohen labels status frustration.

Cohen was able to believe that because of status frustration lower-class boys who suffer rejection by middle-class (rich) people may tend to from deviant subcultures and Cohen called it: the corner boy, the college boy, or the delinquent boy.

Corner Boy

The Corner Boy role is the most common response to middle-class rejection. He is not a chronic delinquent but may be a truant who engages in petty or status offenses, such as sex before marriage and recreational drug abuse.

Corner Boy

College Boy

The College Boy embraces the cultural and social values of the middle-class. He actively strive to be successful by those standard.

Delinquent Boy

The Delinquent Boy adopts set of norms and principles in direct opposition to middle-class values. He strives for independence and that nobody can control his behavior, he may join gang and willing to take risks and violate the law.

Differential Opportunity Theory

This theory is a combination of strain and disorganization principles into a portrayal of a gang-sustaining criminal subculture. The main concept of this theory states that people in all strata of society share the same success goals but those in the lower-class have limited means of achieving them. People who perceive themselves as failures with conventional society will seek alternative or innovative ways to gain success, such as joining drug syndicate and any other forms of illegal activities.

Lesson 9

Drift Theory

Neutralization Theory is identified with the writings of David C. Matza and his associate Gresham M. Sykes. They viewed the process of becoming a criminal is a learning experience in which potential delinquents and criminals master techniques that enable them to counterbalance or neutralize conventional values and drift back and forth between illegitimate and conventional behavior.

Matza further argued that even the most committed criminals and delinquents are not involved in criminality all the time; they also attend schools, family functions, and religious services.

Lesson 10

Techniques of Neutralization

The following are the techniques of neutralization for a person to justify his law-violating behavior and drift away from the rules of the normative society and participate in subterranean behaviors.

Denial of Responsibility

Young offenders sometimes claim their unlawful acts were simply not their fault. “They made me do it”.

Denial of Responsibility

Denial of Injury

Criminals are able to neutralize their behavior by denying the wrongfulness to their act. “They have insurance”. “What’s one ballpen to a big store?”

Denial of Injury

Denial of Victim

Criminals would neutralize their acts by maintaining that the victim of crime “had it coming”. In this case, the criminal would blame his victim.

Denial of Victim

Condemnation of the Condemners

A criminal would view the world as a corrupt place.

Example: criminal would say that judges are on the take because of their judgement accused been to sent to prison. Other criminal would say, “Teachers show favoritism”.

Appeal to the Higher Loyalties

Appeal to Higher Loyalties

Novice criminals often argue that they are caught in the dilemma of being loyal to their own peer group while at the same time attempting to abide by the rules of the larger society.

Example: the criminal would say, “Only cowards run away”.

Differential Association Theory

Lesson 11

Differential association theory was created by American criminologist Edwin H. Sutherland in his text, Principles of Criminology. He suggests that people commit crime by learning in a social context through their interactions with others and communication with them.

He believed criminal behavior is learned by interaction with others, and this includes learning the techniques committing the crime, and the motives, drives, rationalizations, and attitudes for committing it.

Containment Theory

Containment theory was presented by Walter C. Reckless and assumes that for every individual, there exists a containing external structure and a protective internal structure, both of which provide defense, protection, or insulation against delinquency.

Lesson 12

According to Reckless, “outer containment”, or the structure buffer that holds the person in bounds, can be found in the following components:

• A role that provides a guide for a person’s activities

• A set of reasonable limits and responsibilities

• An opportunity for the individual to achieve status

• A sense of belonging

• Identification with one and more persons within the group

Outer Containment

“Inner containment”, or personal control, is ensured by:

• A good self-concept

• Self-control

• A strong ego

• A well-developed conscience

• A high sense of responsibility

In short, in an individual’s containing external or outer containment and protective internal or inner containment are weak then there’s great possibility that the individual will commit a crime or may resort to delinquency.

Inner Containment

Elements of Social Bond

Social Bond Theory

Lesson 13

Social bond theory also called social control theory, articulated by Travis W. Hirschi.

Hirschi links the onset of criminality to the weakening of the ties that bind people to society. He assumes that all individuals are potential law violators, but they are kept under control because they fear that illegal behavior will damage their relationships with friends, parents, neighbors, teachers, and employers.

Attachment

Commitment

Involvement

Belief

Social Reaction:

Labeling Theory

Consequences of Labeling

Lesson 14

Labeling theory was created by Howard S. Becker who explains that society creates deviance through a system of social control agencies that designate (label) certain individuals as delinquent, thereby stigmatizing a person and encouraging them to accept this negative personal identity. For example: people labeled “insane” are also assumed to be dangerous, dishonest, unstable, violent, strange, and otherwise sound. In contrast, negative labels, including “troublemaker”, “mentally-ill”, and “stupid”, help stigmatize the recipient of these labels and reduce their self-image.

Stigmatization

Stigmatization – labels are believed to produce stigma. People who have been negatively labeled because of their participation or alleged participation in deviant or outlawed behaviors maybe socially outcasted who may be prevented from enjoying a higher education, well-paying jobs, and other social benefits.

Self-labeling

Self-labeling – it refers to the process by which a person who has been negatively labeled accepts the label as a personal role or identity.

For example: if the mother keeps on telling her child that her child is dull, then in school the child would also assume that he is dull.

Self-fulfilling Prophecy – deviant behavior patterns that are in response to an earlier labeling experience, a person act out these social roles even if they were falsely bestowed.

For example: if the wife keeps on saying that her husband is cheating on her even though it is not true; then there is a possibility that the husband would fulfill the statements made by her wife.

Self-fulfilling Prophecy

Dramatization of Evil – Frank Tannenbaum suggests that social typing, which he called “dramatization of evil”, transforms the offender’s identity from a “doer of evil” to “an evil person”.

For example: a person who is being labeled a hired murderer may commit a crime because he is being hired; and he may become a real evil murderer already.

Dramatization of Evil

Primary and Secondary Deviance

Primary and Secondary Deviance was created by Edwin M. Lemert.

Lesson 15

Primary Deviance

primary deviance involves norm violations or crimes that have very little influence on the actor and can be quickly forgotten.

For example, a college student takes a book at the campus bookstore. He successfully steals a textbook, uses it to get an A in a course, goes on to graduate, is admitted to law school, and later becomes a famous judge. Because his shoplifting got unnoticed, it is relatively unimportant even that has little bearing on his future life.

Secondary Deviance

occurs when a deviant event comes to the attention of significant others or social control agents who apply a negative label. The newly labeled offender then reorganizes his or her behavior and personality around the consequences of the deviant act.

For example, the shoplifting students is caught by a security guard and expelled from college, with his law school dreams dashed and his future cloudy, his options are limited; people who know him will say “he lacks character”, and he begins to share his opinion. He eventually becomes a drug dealer and winds up in prison.

Economic Theories

Biopsychosocial Theories

Political/Social Conflict Theories

Development Theories

Theories on Women Offenders

Ecology or Environmental Theories

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