History of Early Modern Europe, 1500-1900

The Renaissance

Renaissance Art

The Renaissance was a period of talented artistic achievements. Artists of the period created new techniques to improve their work. For example, they developed the technique of perspective, a method of showing a three-dimensional scene on a flat surface so that it looks real.

Many Renaissance artists were also humanists. Humanist artists valued the achievements of individuals. These artists wanted their paintings and sculptures to show people's unique personalities. One of the artists best able to show this sense of personality in his works was the Italian Michelangelo. He was both a great painter and sculptor. His statues, like the one of King David above, seem almost to be alive.

Another famous Renaissance artist was Leonardo da Vinci. Leonardo achieved the Renaissance goal of excelling in many areas. He was not only a great painter and sculptor but also an architect, scientist, and engineer. He sketched plants and animals as well as inventions such as a submarine. He collected knowledge about the human body. Both Leonardo and Michelango are examples of what we call Renaissance people people who can do practically anything well.

At the end of the Middle Ages, people across Europe found the urge to be creative. Their creativity was sparked by new ideas and discoveries that were sweeping through Europe at the time. This period of creativity, of new ideas and inspirations, is called the Renaissance. It lasted from about 1350 through the 1500s. Renaissance is French for "rebirth". The people who named this period believed it represented a new beginning, or rebirth, in Europe's history and culture.

Renaissance Science

Some of the ancient works rediscovered during the Renaissance dealt with science. For the first time in centuries, Europeans could read about early Greek and Roman scientific advances. Inspired by what they read, some people began to study math, astronomy, and other fields of science.

Using this new scientific knowledge, Europeans developed new inventions and techniques. For example, they learned how to build enormous domes that could rise higher than earlier buildings.

Another invention of the Renaissance

was the movable type printing press. A German named Johann Gutenberg built the first movable type printing press in the mid-1400s. This type of printing press could print books quickly and cheaply. For the first time, people could easily share ideas with others in distant areas. The printing press helped the ideas of the Renaissance spread beyond Italy.

The Renaissance

New Ideas

The Renaissance started in Italy. During and after the Crusades, Italian cities such as Florence and Venice became rich through trade. Goods from faraway Asia moved through these cities. These goods made the people who lived there curious about the larger world. At the same time, scholars from other parts of the world came to Italy. They brought books written by ancient Greeks and Romans.

Inspired by these books and by the ancient ruins around them, some people in Italy became interested in ancient cultures. These people began reading works in Greek and Latin and studying subjects that had been taught in Greek and Roman schools.

These subjects, known as the humanities, included history, poetry, and grammar. Increased study of the humanities led to a new way of thinking and learning known as humanism. Humanism emphasized the abilities and accomplishments of human beings. The humanists believed that people were capable of great things. As a result, they admired artists, architects, leaders, writers, scientists, and other talented individuals.

Renaissance Literature

Like artists, Renaissance writers expressed the attitudes of the time. The most famous Renaissance writer is probably the English dramatist William Shakespeare. He wrote excellent poetry, but Shakespeare is best known for his plays.

They include more than 30 comedies, histories, and tragedia in his plays, Shakespeare turned popular stories into great drama. His writing shows a deep understanding of human nature and skillfully expresses the thoughts and feelings of his characters. For these reasons Shakespeare's plays are still highly popular in many parts of the world.

Renaissance writings were read and enjoyed by a larger audience than earlier writings had been. This change was largely due to advances in science and technology such as the printing press.

The Reformation

The Catholic Reformation

Protestants were not the only ones who called for reform in the Roman Catholic Church. Many Catholic officials wanted to reform the church as well. Even as the first Protestants were breaking away from the church, Catholic officials were launching a series of reforms that became known as the Catholic Reformation.

As part of the Catholic Reformation, church leaders began focusing more on spiritual concerns and less on political power. They also worked to make church teachings easier for people to understand. To tell people about the changes, church leaders sent priests and teachers all over Europe. Church leaders also worked to spread Catholic teachings into Asia, Africa, and other parts of the world.

By the early 1500s some Europeans had begun to complain about problems they saw in the Roman Catholic Church. For example, they thought the church had become corrupt. In time, their complaints led to a religious reform movement called the Reformation.

The

Reformation

Religious War

The Reformation caused major changes to the religious map of Europe. Catholicisim, once the main religion in most of Europe, was no longer so dominant. In many areas, especially in the north, Protestants now outnumbered Catholics.

In some parts of Europe, Catholics and Protestants lived together in peace. In some other places, however, this was not the case. Bloody religious wars broke out in France, Germany, the Netherlands, and Switzerland. Wars between religious groups left parts of Europe in ruins.

These religious wars led to political and social changes in Europe. For example, many people began relying less on what church leaders and other authority figures told them. Instead, people raised questions and began looking to science for answers.

The Protestant Reformation

Although people called for church reform in other places, the Reformation began what is now Germany. This area was part of the Holy Roman Empire. Some people there thought church officials were to focused on their own power and had low sight of their religious duties.

One of the first people to express protests against the Catholic Church was a German monk named Martin Luther. In 1517 Luther nailed a list of complaints to a church door in the town of Wittenberg. Luther's protests angered church officials, who soon expelled him from the church. In response, Luther's followers formed a separate church. They became the first Protestants, Christians who broke from the Catholic Church over religious issues.

Other reformers who followed Luther began creating churches of their own as well. The Roman Catholic Church was no longer the only church in Western Europe. Many areas of Europe had become Protestant by 1600.

The Science Revolution

In fact, it was not until the 1500s and 1600s that most people in Europe began to appreciate what science and technology could do to improve life.

Science and Religion

Not everyone was happy with the new role of science in society. Some people feared that scientific ideas would eventually lead to the breakdown of European society.

Many of the people who most feared the increasing influence of science were church officials. They tended to oppose science when it went against the teachings of the church. For example, the church taught that Earth was at the center of the universe. Some scientists, though, had observed through telescopes that Earth orbited the sun. This observation went against the church's teaching.

This growing tension between religion and science came to a head in 1632. That year, an Italian scientist named Galileo published a book in which he stated that Earth orbited the sun. He was arrested and put on trial. Afraid that the church would expel him, Galileo publicly stated that his writings were wrong. Privately, though, he held to his beliefs.

Despite conflicts such as these, science and religion were able to exist together in Europe. In fact, many scientists saw a connection between science and religion. These scientists believed that science could better explain church teachings. Science continued developing rapidly as a result.

The Science Revolution

Discoveries and Inventions

The Scientific Revolution was a period of great advances in many fields of science. With increased interest in science came discoveries in astronomy, biology, physics, and other fields. For example, astronomers discovered how the stars and the planets move in the sky. Biologists learned how blood circulates throughout the human body. Physicists figured out how mirrors and pendulums worked.

Some of the greatest advances of the Scientific Revolution were made by one man, Sir Isaac Newton. He made exciting contributions to both math and physics. Newton is probably best known today for his observations about gravity, the force that attracts objects to each other. Before his observations, scientists knew very little about how gravity works.

Many of the discoveries of the Scientific Revolution were possible because of new inventions. Devices such as the telescope, the microscope, and the thermometer were invented at this time. Some of these new inventions helped contribute to another exciting time the Age of Exploration.

A New View of Science

Before the 1500s, most educated people who studied the world relied on authorities such as ancient Greek writers and church officials. People thought these authorities could tell them all they needed to know. Europeans had little need for science.

Between about 1540 and 1700, though, European views about how to study the world changed. This widespread change in views was part of the Scientific Revolution, the series of events that led to the birth of modern science. People began placing more importance on what they observed and less on what they were told. They used their observations to come up with logical explanations for how the world worked. This new focus on observation marked the start of modern science.

The new approach to science was a radical idea. In the same way a political revolution changes a country, this new view of science changed society.

The Voyages of Discovery

Some advances in science and technology enabled people to make longer, safer sea voyages. New compasses and astrolabes helped sailors figure out where they were even when far from land. Improvements in mapmaking helped people plan safer routes for their journeys. In addition, new ships, such as the caravel, made sea travel safer. The caravel could sail farther than earlier ships could.

Equipped with these new advances, many Europeans set out on great voyages of discovery. They sailed into unknown waters hoping to find new trade routes to faraway places. They would succeed in their quest, and their discoveries would change the world.

Voyages to the East

In the mid-1400s, explorers from Europe began searching for an all water route to Asia. They wanted to reach Asia to get goods from China and India. During the Middle Ages, Europeans had discovered the exotic goods available in Asia. Many of them, such as silk and spices, were not found in Europe. These Asian goods were costly, because traders had to bring them long distances over land. Further, Italian traders controlled the sale of such goods in Europe and these Italian traders had become very rich.

Other European countries wanted to break the hold the Italians had on trade with Asia. The Italians controlled all the trade routes in the eastern Mediterranean. If other countries could find an all water route to Asia, they would not have to pay Italian traders to get exotic Asian goods.

The first explorers to search for a sea route to Asia were from Portugal. Under the direction of Prince Henry, they sailed south along Africa's west coast. As they went, they set up trading posts along the Atlantic coast of Africa. In time, explorers sailed farther south. In 1497-1498 a Portuguese explorer named Vasco da Gama sailed around the southern tip of Africa and on to the west coast of India. Portugal had found a new sea route to Asia.

The Voyages of Discovery

The Drive to Discover

Europeans had many reasons to explore. Some explorers were curious about the unknown. They hoped to find out what lay beyond the horizon. Others sought adventure and the excitement of life at sea. Still others had religious reasons, wanted to spread the Christian faith.

Another reason to explore was the desire to get rich. Some explorers wanted to find new lands that had products they could sell in Europe. The explorers hoped to sell these goods for lots of money and to become rich.

In addition, some European leaders promoted exploration in hope it would benefit their countries. Prince Henry, a member of the Portuguese royal family, encouraged explorers to find a route to India's rich spice trade. Queen Isabella of Spain also promoted exploration. She paid for explorers to seek out new lands and claim them for Spain. She hoped these lands would bring Spain wealth.

Voyages to America

Meanwhile, other countries had also been sending explorers out to find new routes to Asia. The most important expedition came from Spain. In 1492 Queen Isabella of Spain helped pay for a voyage led by Christopher Columbus, an Italian sailor. Columbus hoped to reach Asia by sailing west across the Atlantic. The voyage was long and difficult, but he finally reached land after several months at sea. He landed on an island in what is now the Bahamas. Columbus had reached a new land.

New Empires

As European explorers discovered lands in the Americas and elsewhere, they claimed these lands for their countries. These land claims formed the basis for next European empires that stretched across the sea into lands far from Europe.

New Empires

Other Colonies

Other European countries envied Spain's wealth and power. They wanted a share of the wealth that Spain was finding in the Americas. In hope of finding similar wealth, these countries began to establish colonies in the lands they explored. Colonists from England, France, the Netherlands, and Portugal had settled in the Americas by 1700.

Like the Spanish, these colonists found Native Americans living in the places they settled. In some cases, new colonists lived peacefully with Native Americans. In other cases, conflict occurred, and colonists and Native Americans fought bloody wars.

Unlike the Spanish, other European colonists in the Americas did not find huge deposits of gold or silver. They did find other valuable resources, though. Among these resources were wood, furs, rich soil, and different foods. These resources helped the countries of England, France, Portugal, and the Netherlands grow wealthy.

Conquests and Empires

The Spanish, who were the first Europeans to reach the Americas, claimed large areas of land there. In some places, the Spanish met powerful native empires. These native people fought to defend their lands.

Before long, though, the Spanish had defeated the two most powerful empires in the Americas. These empires were the Aztecs in what is now Mexico and the Incas in what is now Peru. The Spanish had steel swords, firearms, and horses all unknown in the Americas. This advantage helped the Spanish defeat the Aztec and Inca armies. In addition, diseases that the Spanish carried killed many thousands of Native Americans. By the mid-1500s, Spain ruled a huge area in the Americas.

One of Spain's central goals in the Americas was to gain wealth. The Spanish wanted the gold and silver that could be found in Mexico and some other places. To get these riches, the Spanish enslaved Native Americans and forced them to work in mines. In addition, the Spanish brought African slaves to the Americas to work in the mines. Soon, ships full of gold and silver from these mines were crossing the Atlantic Ocean back to Spain.

Riches from the Americas made Spain the wealthiest country in Europe. Spain's rulers used this money to buy equipment for its armies and to produce ships for its navy. With this powerful military, Spain became Europe's mightiest country, the center of a huge empire.

The Enlightment

The Age of Reason

During the 1600s and 1700s a number of people began to put great importance on reason, or logical thought. They started using reason to challenge long-held beliefs about education, government, law, and religion. By using reason, these people hoped to solve problems such as poverty and war. They believed the use of reason could achieve three great goals-knowledge, freedom, and happiness-and thereby improve society. The use of reason in shaping people's ideas about society and politics defined a period called the Enlightenment. Because of its focus on reason, this period is also known as the Age of Reason.

The Enlightment

New Ideas about Government

During the Enlightenment, some people used reason to examine government. They questioned how governments worked and what the purpose of government should be. In doing so, these people developed completely new ideas about government. These ideas would help lead to the creation of modern democracy.

At the time of the Enlightenment, monarchs, or kings and queens, ruled in most of Europe. Many of these monarchs believed they ruled through divine right. That is, they thought God gave them the right to rule however they chose.

Some people challenged rule by divine right. They thought rulers' powers should be limited to protect people's freedoms. These people said government's purpose was to protect and to serve the people.

John Locke, an English philosopher, had a major influence on Enlightenment thinking about the role of government.

Locke thought government should be a contract between a ruler and the people. A contract binds both sides, so it would limit the ruler's power. Locke also believed that all people had certain natural rights, such as life, liberty, and property. If a ruler did not protect these natural rights, people had the right to change rulers.

Other scholars built on Locke's ideas. One was Jean-Jacques Rousseau. He said government should express the will, or desire, of the people. According to Rousseau, citizens give the government the power to make and enforce laws. But if these laws do not serve the people, the government should give up its power.

These Enlightenment ideas spread far and wide. In time, they would inspire some Europeans to rise up against their rulers.

The Age of Revolution

The American Revolution

In time, Enlightenment ideas spread to the British colonies in North America. There, the British ruler's power was not limited as it was in England. For this reason, many colonists had grown unhappy with British rule. These colonists began to protest the British laws that they thought were unfair.

In 1775 the protests turned to violence,

starting the Revolutionary War. Colonial leaders, influenced by the ideas of Locke and Rousseau, claimed Great Britain had denied their rights. In July 1776 they signed the Declaration of Independence.

Largely written by Thomas Jefferson, this document declared the American colonies' independence from Britain. A new nation, the United States of America, was born.

In 1783 the United States officially won its independence. The colonists had successfully put Enlightenment ideas into practice. Their success would inspire many other people, particularly in France.

The 1600s and 1700s were a time of great change in Europe. Some changes were peaceful, such as those in science. Other changes were more violent. In England, North America, and France, new ideas about government led to war and the Age of Revolution.

Meanwhile, France's government was deeply in debt. To raise money, Louis XVI wanted to tax the wealthy. He called a meeting of the representatives of the three estates to discuss a tax increase.

The meeting did not go smoothly. Some members of the Third Estate were familiar with Enlightenment ideas. These members demanded a greater voice in the meeting's decisions.

Eventually, the Third Estate members formed a separate group called the National Assembly. This group demanded that the French king accept a constitution limiting his powers.

Louis XVI refused, which angered the common people of Paris. On July 14, 1789, this anger led a mob to storm the Bastille, a prison in Paris. The mob released the prisoners and destroyed the building. The French Revolution had begun.

The French Revolution quickly spread to the countryside. In events called the Great Fear, peasants took revenge on land. Lords and other nobles for long years of poor treatment. In their rage, the peasants burned down houses and monasteries.

At the same time, other leaders of the revolution were taking peaceful steps. The National Assembly wrote and approved the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. This 1789 French constitution guaranteed French citizens some rights and made taxes fairer. Among the freedoms the constitution supported were the freedoms of speech, of the press, and of religion.

The Age of Revolution

Civil War and Reform in England

In England, Enlightenment ideas led to conflict between the monarchs, or rulers, and Parliament, the lawmaking body. For many years England's rulers had shared power with Parliament. The relationship was an uneasy one, however. As rulers and Parliament fought for power, the situation grew worse.

In 1642 the power struggle erupted in civil war. Supporters of Parliament forced King Charles I from power. He was later tried and beheaded. A new government then formed, but it was unstable.

By 1660 many of the English were tired of Instability. They wanted to restore the monarchy. They asked the former kiugs son to rule England as Charles II. However, Charles had to agree to let Parliament keep powers it had gained during the civil war. In 1689 Parliament further limited the monarch's power. That year, it approved the English Bill of Rights.

This document listed rights for Parliament and the English people. For example, it gave Parliament the power to pass laws and to raise taxes. In addition, Parliament made the king promise to honor Magna Carta. Signed in 1215, this document limited the English ruler's power and protected some rights of the people.

However, few monarchs had honored it during the previous 400 years. Parliament wanted to be sure future rulers honored Magna Carta. By 1700 Parliament held most of the political power in England. Divine right to rule had ended for England's monarchy.

The French Revolution

The people of France closely watched the events of the American Revolution. Soon, they grew inspired to fight for their own rights in the French Revolution.

A major cause of the French Revolution was anger over the differences between social classes. In France, the king ruled over a society split into three classes called estates.

The Catholic clergy made up the First Estate. They enjoyed many benefits. Nobles belonged to the Second Estate. These people held important positions in military, government, and the courts.

The majority of the French people were members of the Third Estate. This group included peasants, craftworkers, and shopkeepers.

Many Third Estate members thoughit France's classes were unfair. These people were poor and often hungry. Yet, they paid the highest taxes. While they suffered, King Louis XVI held fancy parties, and Queen Marie-Antoinette wore costly clothes.

The French Republic

In time, revolutionary leaders created a French republic. The new republic did not end France's many growing problems, however. Unrest soon returned.

In 1793 the revolutionaries executed Louis XVI. His execution was the first of many as the government began arresting anyone who questioned its rule. The result was the Reign of Terror, a bloody period of the French Revolution during which the government executed thousands of its opponents and others at the guillotine. This device beheaded victims with a large, heavy blade.

The Reign of Terror finally ended when one of its own leaders was executed in 1794. Although a violent period, the French Revolution did achieve some of its goals. French peasants and workers gained new political rights. The government opened new schools and improved wages. In addition, it ended slavery in France's colonies.

The French republic's leaders struggled, though. As problems grew worse, a strong leader rose up to take control.

Napoleon Bonaparte

In 1799 France was ripe for a change in leadership. That year, Napoleon Bonaparte, a 30-year-old general, took control. Many French people welcomed him because he seemed to support the Revolution's goals. His popularity grew quickly, and in 1804 Napoleon crowned himself emperor.

Napoleon Bonaparte

Military Conquests and Rule

Napoleon was a brilliant military leader. Under his command, the French army won a series of dazzling victories. By 1810 France's empire stretched across Europe.

In France, Napoleon restored order. He created an efficient government, made taxes fairer, and formed a system of public education. Perhaps his most important accomplishment was the creation of a new French legal system, the Napoleonic Code.

This legal code reflected the ideals of the French Revolution, such as equality before the law and equal civil rights. With these many accomplishments, Napoleon sounds like a perfect leader. But he was not. He harshly punished anyone who opposed or questioned his rule.

Napoleon's Defeat

In the end, bad weather contributed to Napoleon's downfall. In 1812 he led an invasion of Russia. The invasion was a disaster. Bitterly cold weather and smart Russian tactics forced Napoleon's army to retreat. Many French soldiers died.

Great Britain, Prussia, and Russia then joined forces and in 1814 defeated Napoleon's weakened army. He returned a year later with a new army, but was again defeated. The British then exiled him to an island, where he died in 1821.

In 1814 European leaders met at the Congress of Vienna. There, they redrew the map of Europe. Their goal was to keep any country from ever becoming powerful enough to threaten Europe again.

Start of the Industrial Revolution

Each day, machines from alarm clocks to dishwashers perform many jobs for us. In the early 1700s, however, people had to do most work themselves. They made most of the items they needed by hand. For power, they used animals or water or their own muscles. Then around the mid-1700s, everything changed. People began inventing machines to make goods and supply power. These machines completely changed the way people across Europe worked and lived. We call this period of rapid growth in machine-made goods the Industrial Revolution.

Start of the Industrial Revolution

Great Britain's Resources

Great Britain provided the setting for the Industrial Revolution's start. Britain and its colonies had the resources needed for industrial growth. These resources included labor, raw materials, and money to invest. For example, Britain had a large workforce, rich supplies of coal, and many rivers for waterpower.

In addition, Great Britain's colonial markets and its growing population were increasing the demand for manufactured goods. Increased demand led people to look for ways to make goods faster or more easily. In Britain all these things came together to start the Industrial Revolution.

From Farmworker to Industrial Laborer

Changes in farming helped pave the way for industrial growth. Since the Middle Ages, farming in Europe had been changing. Wealthy farmers had started buying up land and creating larger farms. These large farms were more efficient. For this reason, many people who owned small farms lost their land. They then had to work for other farmers or move to cities.

At the same time, Europe's growing population was creating a need for more food. To meet this need, farmers began looking for ways to grow more and better crops. Farmers began to experiment with new methods. They also began improving farm technology. Englishman Jethro Tull, for example, invented a seed drill. This device made it possible to plant seeds in straight rows and at certain depths. As a result, more seeds grew into plants.

Better farming methods and technology had several effects. For one, farmers could grow more crops with less labor. With more crops available for food, the population grew even more. With less need for labor, however, many farmworkers lost their jobs. These workers then moved to cities. There, they created a large labor force for the coming industrial growth.

Industrial Growth

Other Inventions

Most early machines ran on waterpower. Thus, factories had to be located by rivers. Although Britain had many rivers, they were not always in desirable locations.

Steam power provided a solution. In the 1760s James Watt, a Scot, built the first modern steam engine. Soon, steam powered most machines. Factories could now be built in better places, such as in cities.

Steam power increased the demand for coal and iron, which were needed to make machinery. Iron can be a brittle metal, though, and iron parts often broke. Then in 1855 Englishman Henry Bessemer developed a cheap way to convert iron into steel, which is stronger. This invention led to the growth of the steel industry.

In addition, new inventions improved engines powered riverboats and train transportation and communication. Steam speeding up transportation. The telegraph made communication faster. Instead of sending a note by boat or train, people could go to a telegraph office and instant send a message over a long distance.

Industrial growth began with textiles, or cloth products. In the early 1700s people made cloth by hand. They used spinning wheels to make thread and looms to weave it into cloth. Given the time and effort this took, it is not surprising that people would want a way to make cloth quickly.

Industrial Growth

Spread of Industry

In time, the Industrial Revolution spread from Great Britain to other parts of Europe. By the late 1800s, factories were making goods across much of Western Europe.

The growth of industry helped lead to a new economic system, capitalism. In this system, individuals own most businesses and resources. People invest money in businesses in the hope of making a profit.

The Factory System

Industrial growth led to major changes in the way people worked and lived. Before most people had worked on farms their homes. Now, more people were going to work in factories. Many of these workers were young women and children, whom owners paid lower wages.

Factory work was long, tiring, and dangerous. Factory workers did the same tasks for 12 hours or more a day, six days a week. Breaks were few, and rules were strict. Although people made more than on farms, wages were still low.

To add to the toil, factory conditions were miserable and unsafe. Year-round, the air was thick with dust, which could harm workers' lungs. In addition, the large machines were dangerous and caused many injuries. Even so, factory jobs were desirable to people with few alternatives.

The Textile Industry

A big step toward manufactured clothing came in 1769. That year, an Englishman, named Richard Arkwright invented a waterpowered spinning machine. Called a water frame, this machine could produce dozens of threads at one time. In contrast, a person using a traditional spinning wheel could produce only one thread at a time.

Other machines sped up production even more. With these new machines, workers could produce large amounts of cloth quickly. As a result, the price of cloth fell. Soon, the British were using machines to make many types of goods. People housed these machines in buildings called factories, and the factories needed power.

Changes in Society

The Industrial Revolution improved life in Europe in many ways. Manufactured goods became cheaper and more available. Inventions made life easier. More people grew wealthier and joined the middle class. These people could afford to live well.

Such problems led to efforts to reform

society and politics. People worked to have laws passed improving wages and factory conditions. Others worked to make cities cleaner and safer. Efforts to gain political were led by suffragettes, women who campaigned to gain the right to vote. In 1928 British suffragettes won the right to vote for women in Great Britain. Changes like these helped usher in the modern age.

Changes in Society

At the same time, industrial growth made life worse in other ways. Citles grew rapidly. They became dirty, noisy, and crowded. Many workers remained poor. They often had to live crammed together in shabby, unsafe apartments. In these conditions, diseases spread rapidly as well.