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UFMS - Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul
FAALC - Faculdade de Letra, Artes e Comunicação
Letras - Habilitação Português/Inglês
Student: Milena Oliveira Reis
MIND MAP
ENGLISH
SEVERAL CONTENT
ENGLISH
CONTENT
- SUPERLATIVES
- COMPARATIVES
- GENITIVE CASE
- DIRECT/INDIRECT SPEECH
- PASSIVE VOICE
SUPERLATIVES
Superlatives
COMPARATIVES
Comparatives
GENITIVE CASE
Genitive Case
DIRECT/INDIRECT SPEECH
Direct/Indirect
Speech
PASSIVE VOICE
Passive Voice
Some varieties of English
1. Received Pronunciation (RP) – British English
2. General American English Pronunciation (GAEP)
3. South African English (SAfrE)
4. Australian English (AuE)
5. Canadian English (CaE)
6. South Asian English (SAE)
WORLD ENGLISHES
History of English
History of
English
The history of the English language really started with the arrival of three Germanic tribes who invaded Britain during the 5th century AD. These tribes, the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes, crossed the North Sea from what today is Denmark and northern Germany. At that time the inhabitants of Britain spoke a Celtic language. But most of the Celtic speakers were pushed west and north by the invaders - mainly into what is now Wales, Scotland and Ireland. The Angles came from "Englaland" [sic] and their language was called "Englisc" - from which the words "England" and "English" are derived.
Old English (450-1100 AD): The invading Germanic tribes spoke similar languages, which in Britain developed into what we now call Old English. Old English was spoken until around 1100.
Middle English (1100-1500): In 1066 William the Conqueror, the Duke of Normandy (part of modern France), invaded and conquered England. The new conquerors (called the Normans) brought with them a kind of French, which became the language of the Royal Court, and the ruling and business classes. In the 14th century English became dominant in Britain again, but with many French words added. This language is called Middle English.
Early Modern English (1500-1800): Towards the end of Middle English, a sudden and distinct change in pronunciation (the Great Vowel Shift) started, with vowels being pronounced shorter and shorter. From the 16th century the British had contact with many peoples from around the world.
Late Modern English (1800-Present): The main difference between Early Modern English and Late Modern English is vocabulary. Late Modern English has many more words, arising from two principal factors: firstly, the Industrial Revolution and technology created a need for new words; secondly, the British Empire at its height covered one quarter of the earth's surface, and the English language adopted foreign words from many countries.
Classification of Englishes
Kachru's Three Circles of English
In this model the diffusion of English is captured in terms of three Concentric Circles of the language: The Inner Circle, the Outer Circle, and the Expanding Circle.
Kachru's Three Circles of English
PHONETICS
In order to produce sound humans use various body parts including the lips, tongue, teeth, pharynx and lungs. Phonetics is the term for the description and classification of speech sounds, particularly how sounds are produced, transmitted and received. A phoneme is the smallest unit in the sound system of a language.
Classification of speech sounds:
Consonant vs. vowel: consonants involve an obstruction in air stream above the glottis.
Voiced vs. voiceless: voiced if vocal chords vibrate
Nasal vs. oral: nasal if air travels through nasal cavity and oral cavity closed
Lateral vs. non-lateral: In lateral phonemes, air stream passes through the sides of the oral cavity and not through the middle.
PHONETICS
VOWEL
Vowels are voiced phonemes, where the vocal tract is open. Vowels are characterized by using articulation features:
• Open-Close dimension refers to how close the tongue is to the roof of the mouth. The more closer to palate the more “closed” the the vowel is.
• Front-Back dimension refers to position of articulation by means of tongue positions: the narrowest point of the vocal tract is essential.
• Nasalization: When the velum is open, airflow gets to the nasal cavity and a nasal phoneme is produced. When the velum is closed, an oral phoneme is produced.
CONSONANTS
In most consonants, the airflow is obstructed at some point. Consonants are characterized by:
1. Voicing – voiced or unvoiced
2. Place of articulation
3. Manner of articulation
VOICING
Voicing refers to the activity of the vocal folds. When the vocal folds are wide apart, consonants are said to be voiceless, when they are closely together and vibrating, consonants are said to be voiced.
Voicing
Place of Articulation
The place of articulation refers to that area in one of the resonating cavities (larynx, mouth) where the articulators are opposing some kind of stricture or obstacle to the passing of air.
To describe the place of articulation of a consonant we must state which of the lower articulators articulates with of the upper articulators. See the image below:
Place of
Articulation
Manner of Articulation
The manner of articulation refers to the main variation in the manner of articulation regards the question how freely the air stream flows when the consonant is produced. There are:
- Sonorants: continuous, non-turbulent airflow in the vocal tract;
- Obstruent: when the airflow is partly or completely obstructed.
Manner of
Articulations
International phonetic alphabet (IPA)
PHONOLOGY
Phonology is the study of the patterns of sounds in a language and across languages. Put more formally, phonology is the study of the categorical organization of speech sounds in languages; how speech sounds are organized in the mind and used to convey meaning.
PHONOLOGY
Phoneme vs Allophones
PHOBOS
Phonemes are the meaningfully different sound units in a language (the smallest units of sound). For example, ‘pat’ and ‘bat’ differ in their first phoneme: the “p” and “b”. Vowels are also phonemes, so “pat” and “pet” differ by a phoneme, too. When two words differ by a single phoneme they are known as a minimal pair.
Allophones are different ways to pronounce a phoneme based on its environment in a word. For example, the two allophones of /l/ in “little” are actually produced slightly differently, and the second one sounds slightly deeper. These different “l” always occur in different environments in words, which is known as “complementary distribution”.
Homophones vs Homographs
Connected speech
Connected speech means that when we speak a language, words have some effect on each other. We do not always pronounce words completely separately with a neat pause in between. In fact, many words affect each other when you put them into phrases and sentences. The end sound of one word often affects the beginning of the next word.
DEIMOS
• Assimilation: Occurs when a phoneme (sound) in one word causes a change in a sound in a neighboring word.
• Deletion: Occurs when there’s a deletion of a sound;
• Palatalization: Occurs when the sound becomes palatal when adjacent to a front vowel.
• Liaison (linking): Occurs when the end of one word blends into another. When the last sound of a word is a consonant and the first sound of the next word is a vowel, you get linking.
• Elision (deletion): Elision is the loss of a phoneme, most commonly the last phoneme of a word, and most commonly the /t/ and /d/ sounds.
PART OF SPEECH
PART OF SPEECH
The parts of speech explain how a word is used in a sentence. There are eight main parts of speech (also known as word classes): nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions and determiners.
NOUN
TITAN
ADJECTIVE
LAPETUS
ADVERB
RHEA
PRONOUN
DIONE
PREPOSITION
TETHYS
CONJUNCTION
ENCELADUS
DETERMINERS
MIMAS
VERB
VERB
A verb is a kind of word (part of speech) that tells about an action or a state. It is the main part of a sentence: every sentence has a verb. In English, verbs are the only kind of word that changes to show past or present tense.
VERB TENSE
Ganimedes
Verbs come in three tenses: past, present, and future. The past is used to describe things that have already happened. The present tense is used to describe things that are happening right now, or things that are continuous. The future tense describes things that have yet to happen.
PAST TENSE
Past
Tense
There are four past tenses in English. We use them to talk about things that started and ended in the past or things that started in the past and continue to the present.
Simple past (I did)
Past continuous (I was doing)
Past perfect (I had done)
Past perfect continuous
(I had been doing)
PRESENT TENSE
Present
Tense
There are four present tenses in English. We use the present tense to talk about something that is going on now or that is true now and any time.
Simple present (I do)
Present continuous (I am doing)
Present perfect (I have done)
Present perfect continuous (I have been doing)
FUTURE TENSE
Any future tense will always refer to a time after than now", but it may also express our attitude to the future event.
Future
Tense
Simple future (I will)
Future continuous
(I will be)
Future Perfect (I will have)
Future Perfect Continuous (I will have been)
MODAL VERBS
Calisto
SYNTAX
Syntax is the grammatical structure of sentences. The format in which words and phrases are arranged to create sentences is called syntax.
SYNTAX
Phrase, clause, sentence
Proteus
Grammatical/Ungrammatical
Nereid
Larissa
The four basic types sentences:
- Simple
- Compound
- Complex
- Compound-complex
• FUTURE KNOWLEDGE: Pragmatics, Semantics etc…
FUTURE KNOWLEDGE
Pragmatics is the study of language from the point of view of usage. It has various sub-forms depending on the emphasis given by linguists, for instance it can be investigated from a strictly linguistic stance or with regard to social factors.
Semantics means the meaning and interpretation of words, signs, and sentence structure. Semantics largely determine our reading comprehension, how we understand others, and even what decisions we make as a result of our interpretations.
References
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Adverbs. Education First, [N.I]. Disponível em <https://www.ef.com/wwen/english-resources/english-grammar/adverbs/>. Acesso em: 02 dez. 2018.
Adjectives. Education First, [N.I]. Disponível em: <https://www.ef.com/wwen/english-resources/english-grammar/adjectives/>. Acesso em: 02 dez. 2018.
Determiners. Education First, [N.I]. Disponível em: <https://www.ef.com/wwen/english-resources/english-grammar/determiners/>. Acesso em: 02 dez. 2018.
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