Guerrilla Warfare in Vietnam

"Why was guerrilla warfare so critical in determining the outcome of the Vietnam War?"

An Australian soldier examining a Viet Cong tunnel, an aspect of guerilla warfare.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Crimp

Definition

The nature of guerrilla warfare as a naturally evasive, burdensome strategy ensured that it was a determining outcome in Viet victory. There are a plethora of definitions regarding guerrilla warfare, though Encyclopaedia Britannica offers a comprehensive one; a "type of warfare fought by irregulars in fast-moving, small-scale actions against orthodox military...forces, either independently or in conjunction with a larger political-military strategy".

Definition

Characteristics

This warfare is directed against an experienced, powerful and technologically advanced foe. Guerrillas engage in hit-and-run tactics, ambushes, sabotage, and taking advantage of the element of surprise to avoid a direct, pitched battle whilst drawing out the war and allowing the enemy to succumb to attrition.

Characteristics

Vietnamese Guerrilla Characteristics

Vietnamese Guerrilla

Warfare

The Vietnamese in particular were able to employ tunnels such as that seen in Source B, in order to stage ambushes, booby traps, and mines, with jungle warfare being frustrating and costly for the Americans. Commanding local support, as seen in Source C, is crucial because battling an aggressive population becomes protracted, as there is no ability to strike a decisive victory against civilian-drawn insurgents. Ultimately, this warfare avoids ill-fated direct fighting to instead exploit terrain, local support and irregular warfare to resist conventional forces.

Introduction

The Vietcong, or the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam, was an organisation composed of those in South Vietnam who supported the communist regime of North Vietnam. The term Viet Cong was derived from the Vietnamese term “Viet nam cong san”, meaning Vietnamese Communist. (Source 1)

Introduction

The Viet Cong Flag circa. 1960

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viet_Cong

Armed Conflict

The Viet Cong was allied with communist North Vietnam against South Vietnam and its ally, the United States, in the battle for a unified, communist Vietnam. (Source 1)

Armed

Conflict

The Viet Cong mainly engaged in guerilla warfare through its military branch, the Liberation Army of South Vietnam (LASV). At its peak, there were supposedly 300 000 Viet Cong soldiers in South Vietnam. (Source 2)

Some members also fought as soldiers in the People’s Army of Vietnam (PAVN), participating primarily in espionage against South Vietnam and Cambodia.

Time Active

Time Active

The Viet Cong was active from 20 December 1960 to 4 February 1977 when it was disbanded because it became redundant as North Vietnam and the Viet Cong had achieved their goal of reuniting North and South Vietnam under a communist regime, which also marked the end of the Vietnam conflict.

Landscape of Indochina

Landscape

The formidable terrain of Indochina served a dual role of both protecting and fortifying Vietnamese positions, whilst bogging down American assaults. Indochina, referring to the region composed of Laos, Vietnam and Cambodia, primarily encompasses mountainous terrain coupled with tropical jungle. As observed in Source A, Vietnam is "a country of...hills, and densely forested highlands, with level land covering no more than 20% of the total area".

Lent itself to Guerrilla Warfare

Benefits for Viet Cong

This terrain was prime for guerrilla warfare against Americans that did not have the level of knowledge regarding terrain nor local support among the populace that the insurgents did. As the BBC states, "The Vietcong had an intricate knowledge of the terrain. They won the hearts and minds of the South Vietnamese people by living in their villages and helping them with their everyday lives." The dense jungle also provided camouflage for Vietnamese insurgents to hide and launch hit-and-run attacks, set booby traps and ambush enemy soldiers. Terrain allowed them to "emerge from hiding to destroy bridges, crater roads, assault a lightly defended outpost, or spring an ambush. Then, before the conventional government forces can react, the insurgents return to the relative security of the dense forests, swamps, or rice fields."

Worked against Conventional Warfare

Detriments for US

However, terrain not only enhanced Vietnamese counter-attacks, but also subverted American assaults by disrupting supply lines, impairing reconnaissance, and preventing transport. As James A. Reynolds states, "From the standpoint of military operations and logistics, the maneuver and supply of large forces would be severely hampered by the rugged forested mountains, the numerous streams, [and] the extensive rice fields...". The US airforce, which in WW2 "developed solid doctrine, particularly for strategic bombing" was not utilised effectively, as the impenetrable jungle (Source B) shielded guerrillas and obstructed aerial views. Thus, US forces could not take advantage of their enormous technological and armoured superiority in such an environment, whereas Vietnamese guerrillas were able to effectively carry out their operations.

Introduction

Introduction

Guerrilla warfare in the Vietnam conflict was defined by several key strategies and tactics used by the Viet Cong that were critical in overcoming overwhelming US support.

It was mainly utilised by small regional forces that would ambush, sabotage and scout enemy forces and areas that were vital to US supply lines, transport and movement of soldiers. as a Britannica article summarises as “an estimated sixty thousand troops and [Viet Cong] control of nearly 68 percent of South Vietnam's villages and hamlets” by 1964.

Weapons

After the 1960s, Viet Cong soldiers engaging in guerrilla warfare operated the Russian AK-47 and the semi-automatic SKS carbine, lightweight weapons that allowed quick movement.

Around bases and tunnels, the DP 7.62mm light machine gun defended against UH-1 ‘Huey’ helicopters.

Weapons and Booby Traps

A collection of Viet Cong firearms from the 1966 US Army

Source: “Jungle And Guerrilla Warfare” booklet

Conclusion

Thus, these key strategies of Viet Cong guerrilla warfare were critical in diverting US resources, inflicting casualties and gathering intel that sustained the North Vietnamese victory.

As US General Bruce Palmer Jnr affirms in his 1984 memoir, "the enemy clearly had the initiative; and...American forces found themselves in the unenviable situation of having to react and dance to the enemy’s tune."

Conclusion

Introduction

The significance of guerrilla warfare in determining Vietcong victory is shown through the critical establishment of the Cu Chi Tunnels as guerrilla warfare. The tunnels were a critical component of guerrilla warfare through providing shelter, conducting attacks and mobility.

Introduction

Shelter and Refuge

In addition to protecting against air raids, the Cu Chi Tunnels provided effective, immediate shelter and undetectable-hideout critical to retracting post-attack, corresponding with the elements of guerrilla warfare. This shelter would aid the Viet Cong in withstanding the superior artillery attacks brought by the US/allies; furthermore, allowing them to remain camouflaged and retaliate in a more effective and proficient manner through tactics of guerrilla warfare as seen in source 2 and 3. Thus, ensuring Viet Cong victory.

Shelter and Refuge

Conducting Attack

Conducting Attack

The Cu Chi tunnels importance as a component of guerrilla warfare is seen through the installation of thousands of traps constructed to capture and kill South Vietnam and allied soldiers (Source 4 & 4a). It was through these traps that the Viet Cong were able to overpower their disadvantage in numbers, allowing a method of attack that did not involve direct confrontation. This is reinforced through the recount of soldier J.T Gillian who describes it to be a "rare fortune" that a Viet Cong soldier was to be seen attacking from the tunnels. Therefore, explaining the significance of guerrilla warfare to Viet Cong victory.

Mobility and Movement

Mobility and Movement

Movement through the Cu Chi Tunnels was critical in determining the outcome of the Vietnam war, furthermore, establishing why the tunnels were a crucial part of guerrilla warfare. The movement provided by the Cu Chi tunnels facilitated fast-paced, efficient, and erratic attacks that ensured a Viet Cong victory (Source 5), through limiting the American ability for retaliation. Whilst establishing the Cu Chi tunnels as a critical component of guerrilla warfare, it is evident how the tunnels were a crucial part of Viet Cong victory.

Introduction

The culminated response of American and Australian forces to the Viet Cong’s strategies of surprise and deception can only be characterised as a “heavy-handed… American” style of warfare. To decipher the brutal and often controversial counter-strategies used by the USA and Australia to counter the Viet Cong, we must deconstruct the two main aspects of guerrilla warfare.

1 - Mobility, secrecy, surprise, raids, ambushes, light skirmishes and sabotage

2 - An important reliance on the environment and local support for camouflage, evasion and resistance

Introduction

Context

Context

The Australians had come to Vietnam through their experience of counter-insurrection fighting in Malaya and Borneo, and preparing in low level, counter-revolt fighting procedures. Their techniques included appeasement, the reclamation of state control, isolating insurgents from the population, searching, watching, and ambushing. All of these ideas placed heavy emphasis on patience and stealth.

The Americans had come to Vietnam through their experience of the Korean war and peacekeeping in post-war Europe. With no real experience within the formidable terrain of Indochina, body counts became their measure of success.

Search and Destroy

Search and Destroy

A quote from Brittanica summarises the style and success of the 'search and destroy' counter-strategy employed by the US.

"In Vietnam, General Westmoreland's strategy was to fight a war of attrition. He called it "search and destroy." American forces would search out the enemy, make contact, and then, with superior numbers and firepower, destroy him.

But Vietnam was a guerrilla war--with no fronts, no distinct lines of supply and communication, no massing of enemy troops, no conclusive battles. Just finding and identifying the enemy became frustrating and deadly.

The Viet Cong were at home. They could pick the time and place to engage American forces; they could inflict heavy casualties on the Americans and then fade away into the bush, or into the civilian population."

Further Counter-strategies

Further Counter-Strategies

To “weed out” the Viet Cong from the forests of Vietnam, the Americans began to bomb large swathes of jungle and at the same time use pesticides such as Agent Orange (Operation Ranch Hand 1962-71) with the hope of disrupting the Ho Chi Minh trail and exposing the Viet Cong inside the jungle. As observed in Source 1 and 2, vast quantities of land were decimated ruthlessly by American forces, leading to the accidental deaths of tens of thousands of Vietnamese civilians.

Evaluation and Conclusion

These attempts were merely futile in achieving their desired goals. The secrecy of the supply chains under the covers of the Vietnamese jungle ensured that US bombing intelligence was loosely based on poor military evidence. Furthermore, the nomadic nature of the Viet Cong and their heavy utilisation of the Chu Chi tunnel network ensured that they always had options to escape back into the cover of the landscape through different means.

The Americans simply did not have the backing of the locals or experience of the treacherous jungle landscape to effectively counter the guerilla tactics employed by the Viet Cong. Without proper counterinsurgency strategies, the Americans were unable to dent the resolve of the Viet Cong insurgents, which was so essential to their eventual victory.

Evaluation and Conclusion

Introduction

Thus, guerilla warfare was incredibly successful in the Vietnam conflict militarily and politically. This was due to a plethora of factors such as the Indo-China landscape, Viet Cong tactics and political impacts.

Introduction

War of Attrition

War of Attrition

Firstly, as the Indo-China landscape lent itself to guerilla warfare, the Vietnam conflict became a war of attrition which was ideal for the Viet Cong as the unconventional tactics of guerrilla warfare such as tunnelling and hit-and-runs allowed them to wear down and overpower the military might of the US and South Vietnamese troops physically and psychologically. (Source 1)

American activist and soldier Robert Taber encapsulated the Viet Cong’s guerrilla tactics in "The flea bites, hops, and bites again, nimbly avoiding the foot that would crush him. He does not seek to kill his enemy at a blow, but to bleed him and feed on him, to plague and bedevil him... All this requires time. Still, more time is required to breed more fleas... the military enemy suffers the dog's disadvantages: too much to defend; too small and agile an enemy to come to grips with."

Political Impacts

Political Impacts

Furthermore, guerilla warfare had profound political impacts that benefitted North Vietnam and the Viet Cong. The size and mobility of guerilla warfare allowed for more connection with the people of Vietnam, which was essential to the outcome of the conflict. (Source 1) Many lived in squalor and assisted the Viet Cong after education and promises regarding the distribution of wealth. (Source 2)

Guerilla warfare was also successful in benefiting the Viet Cong through sowing the seeds of political unrest within the US due to the counter-guerilla strategies such as search-and-destroy which targeted the Viet Cong but often killed civilians.

Conclusion

Ultimately, guerrilla warfare was incredibly successful militarily and politically and was critical to determining the outcome of the Vietnam conflict.

Conclusion

https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/z342mp3/revision/4

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https://www.jstor.org/stable/26357649?seq=2#metadata_info_tab_contents

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09546559308427227

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