The Renaissance

Objective: Identify the specific changes in learning that laid the foundation for the Renaissance.

A TIME OF CHANGE

From approximately 1300 to 1600, Europe experienced an explosion of creativity in art, architecture, writing, and thought. Historians call this period the Renaissance. The term means “rebirth,” and in this context, it refers to a revival of art and learning.

People of the Renaissance hoped to bring back the culture of classical Greece and Rome. Yet in striving to revive the past, they created something new. The contributions made during this period led to innovative styles of art and literature. They also led to new values, such as individualism, or a belief in the importance of the individual.

Although the developments of the Renaissance may seem to be a complete departure from the medieval era, they grew out of several important changes in society, politics, economics, and learning. These changes laid the foundation for the Renaissance.

New Technology

Western Europeans also learned the technology of papermaking from Islamic Spain. Paper was first manufactured in China around 105 AD. In 751, technicians in the Abbasid caliphate learned the process. Because paper made it easier to create and store books, its use contributed to the growth of libraries. Papermaking soon spread through the Islamic world. By 1400, paper mills were to be found in France, Italy, and Germany. The availability of paper later helped make possible the development of printing.

A TIME OF CHANGE

Shifts in Society

As a result of waves of famine and disease, Europe’s population in 1450 was much smaller than it had been in 1300. With far fewer people to feed, the general standard of living was much higher. People were also generally better educated. Schools in the growing towns provided at least a basic education, which was extended by recently developed universities. As literacy rates increased, so did the demand for books.

Increased trade led to the development of a new class of people between the nobility at the top and the peasants at the bottom: the middle class. The merchants, bankers, and tradespeople in the middle class had more than enough income to meet their basic needs. They had extra money to buy luxury goods and fine homes, which helped to expand the economy still further.

THE RISE OF ITALIAN CITY-STATES

Objective: Explain the conditions in Italy that gave rise to the Renaissance.

The final major factor that contributed to the Renaissance was the rise of city-states in Italy. At a time when most of Europe was rural, agricultural, and manorial, Italy was much more urban and commercial. Since cities are often places where people exchange ideas, they were an ideal breeding ground for an intellectual revolution.

Political Factors

Political development in Italy was unlike that in other parts of Europe. Whereas countries like England and France steadily moved toward the consolidation of power into the hands of dynastic royal families, Italy remained fragmented.

One reason for this was the development of a strong urban nobility that intermarried over time with rising commercial families. These noble families with commercial backing were then able to establish vital, independent bases in a number of Italian cities, mostly in northern and central Italy.

THE RISE OF ITALIAN CITY-STATES

Economic Factors

Overseas trade, spurred by the Crusades, led to the growth of large city-states in northern Italy. By the year 1000, Italian cities were at the forefront of an impressive economic expansion that would carry on into the Renaissance some 300 years later. Two decades into the 11th century, this financial success would allow Italian cities to begin to ignore the German emperor who claimed to control them.

Traditionally, wealth in Europe was based on land ownership. The growth in foreign trade created an economy based on commerce rather than agriculture. Merchants needed financial services, such as the ability to transfer money from one place to another. This led to the rise of banks, which soon became an important part of the city-states’ economy. Some crucial aspects of finance, which helped develop the modern economy, were pioneered by the banks of northern Italy.

A wealthy merchant class developed in the Italian city-states. Unlike nobles, merchants did not inherit land and social rank. To succeed in business, they used their wits. As a result, many successful merchants believed they deserved power and wealth because of their individual merit. This belief in individual achievement became important during the Renaissance.

In the 1300s, the bubonic plague struck these cities hard, killing up to 60 percent of the population. This brought economic changes. Because there were fewer laborers, survivors could demand higher wages. With few opportunities to expand business, merchants began to pursue other interests, such as supporting the arts.

Objective: Identify the values and ideas prized during the Renaissance.

CLASSICAL AND WORLDLY VALUES

Patrons of the Arts

Church leaders during the Renaissance beautified

Rome and other cities by spending huge amounts of money for art. They became patrons of the arts by financially supporting artists. Renaissance merchants and wealthy families also became patrons of the arts. By having their portraits painted or by donating art to the city to place in public squares, the wealthy demonstrated their own importance.

As European scholars studied Greek writers and thinkers, they became more influenced by classical ideas. These ideas helped them develop a new outlook on life and art.

The Renaissance Man

During the Renaissance, as the idea of the individual became increasingly important, Renaissance writers introduced the idea of the “ideal” individual. This ideal person was expected to create art and to try to master almost every area of study. A man who excelled in many fields was praised as a “universal man.” Later ages called such people “Renaissance men.”

Baldassare Castiglione wrote a book called The Courtier (1528) that described how to become such a person. A young man should be charming, witty, and well educated in the classics. He should dance, sing, play music, and write poetry. In addition, he should be a skilled rider, wrestler, and swordsman.

CLASSICAL AND WORLDLY VALUES

Worldly Pleasures

In the Middle Ages, some people had demonstrated their piety by wearing rough clothing and eating plain foods. However, humanists suggested that a person might enjoy life without offending God. In Renaissance Italy, the wealthy enjoyed material luxuries, good music, and fine foods.

Most people remained devout Catholics. However, the basic spirit of Renaissance society was secular—worldly rather than spiritual, and concerned with the here and now instead of the hereafter. Even church leaders became more worldly. Some lived in beautiful mansions, threw lavish banquets, and wore expensive clothes.

The Renaissance Woman

According to The Courtier, upper-class women should also know the classics and be charming. Yet they were not expected to seek fame. They were expected to inspire art but rarely to create it. Upper-class Renaissance women were better educated than medieval women. However, most Renaissance women had little influence in politics.

A few women, such as Isabella d’Este, did exercise power. Born into the ruling family of the city-state of Ferrara, she married the ruler of another city-state, Mantua. She brought many Renaissance artists to her court and built a famous art collection. She was also skilled in politics. When her husband was taken captive in war, she defended Mantua and won his release.

Classics Lead to Humanism

The study of classical texts led to humanism, an intellectual movement that focused on human potential and achievements. Instead of trying to make classical texts agree with Christian teaching as medieval scholars had, humanists studied them to understand ancient Greek values. Humanists influenced artists and architects to carry on classical traditions. Also, humanists popularized the study of subjects common to classical education, such as history, literature, and philosophy. These subjects are called the humanities.

Objective: Explain the conditions in Italy that gave rise to the Renaissance.

ARTISTS OF THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE

Supported by patrons like Isabella d’Este, dozens of artists worked in northern Italy. These artists excelled at imitating nature, which became an important aspect of Renaissance painting and sculpture. Medieval artists had used religious subjects to convey a spiritual ideal. Renaissance artists often portrayed religious subjects, but they used a realistic style copied from classical models. Greek and Roman subjects also became popular. Renaissance painters used the technique of perspective, a way of showing three dimensions on a flat surface. The introduction of oil-based paints, first developed in Flanders, allowed artists to create more realistic forms and details. Following the new emphasis on individuals, painters began to paint prominent citizens. These realistic portraits revealed what was distinctive about each person.

In Florence, artists such as the sculptor, poet, architect, and painter Michelangelo Buonarroti used a realistic style when depicting the human body. The sculptor Donatello revived a classical form in his statue of David, a boy who, according to the Bible, became a great king. Donatello’s statue was created in the late 1460s. It was the first European sculpture of a large, free-standing nude since ancient times. David was a favorite subject for sculptors of the period, including Michelangelo.

Raphael Advances Realism

Raphael Sanzio learned by studying the work of Michelangelo and Leonardo. One of Raphael’s favorite subjects was the Madonna and child, whom he portrayed with gentle, calm expressions. He was famous for his use of perspective.

In his greatest achievement, Raphael filled the walls of Pope Julius II’s library with paintings. One of these, School of Athens, shows the classical influence. Raphael painted famous figures such as Michelangelo, Leonardo,

and himself as classical philosophers and their students.

Italian Renaissance Architecture

Even more than painting and sculpture, Renaissance architecture showed its classical roots. Features included classical Roman forms such as columns and domes. Renaissance architects focused on proportion in their designs. As a result the spaces they designed are clear and easy to comprehend.

One of the pioneers of Italian Renaissance architecture was Filippo Brunelleschi. His designs fused classical elements with the Romanesque style, a mixture of Roman, Byzantine, and local styles. As well as rediscovering the principles of linear perspective, Brunelleschi devised a way to build huge domes, using machines of his own invention.

Venetian architect Andrea Palladio studied surviving Roman buildings as well as the works of Roman architects. He wrote a book with rules and plans for buildings. With its clear, detailed illustrations, his book inspired architects in many countries to design buildings in the same style.

ARTISTS OF THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE

Anguissola and Gentileschi

Renaissance society generally restricted

women’s roles. However, a few Italian women became notable painters. Sofonisba Anguissola was the first woman artist to gain an international reputation. She is known for her portraits of her sisters and of prominent people such as King Philip II of Spain. Artemisia Gentileschi was another accomplished artist. She trained with her painter father and helped with his work. In her own paintings, Gentileschi painted pictures of strong, heroic women.

Leonardo da Vinci, Renaissance Man

Leonardo da Vinci was a painter, sculptor, inventor, and scientist. A true “Renaissance man,” he was interested in how things worked. He studied how a muscle moves and how veins are arranged in a leaf. His notebooks contain anatomical, mathematical, optical, mechanical, geological, and botanical studies. He sketched designs for machines that resemble modern tanks and helicopters.

Among Leonardo’s masterpieces is one of the best-known portraits in the world, the Mona Lisa. The woman in the portrait seems so real that many writers have tried to explain the thoughts behind her smile. Leonardo also produced a famous religious painting, The Last Supper. It shows the personalities of Jesus’ disciples through facial expressions.

Objective: Summarize influential literary works and techniques of key Renaissance writers.

WRITERS OF THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE

The dominant feature of Italian Renaissance writing was humanism. Many Italian writers incorporated classical ideals in their work.

Machiavelli Advises Rulers

The Prince (1513) by Niccolò Machiavelli also examines the imperfect conduct of human beings. Machiavelli lived in Florence, which was a center of philosophy and the arts. However, it was also the subject of a series of conflicts as different individuals and factions struggled for power. Machiavelli watched as the Medici ruler was driven from Florence by French forces, only to make a triumphant return to power.

The Prince, which was first published after Machiavelli’s death, follows a long tradition of books offering advice for princes. However, before Machiavelli, most writers urged princes to model themselves after a good and able ruler. Machiavelli recommended that princes should think for themselves. Rather than identifying what “should” be done, rulers should base their actions on the needs of a given situation. In The Prince, Machiavelli was not concerned with what was morally right but with what was politically effective.

In answering the question of how a ruler can gain power and keep it in spite of enemies, he began with the idea that most people are selfish, fickle, and corrupt. To succeed in such a wicked world, Machiavelli said, a prince must be strong as a lion and shrewd as a fox. For the good of the state, he might have to trick his enemies or even his own people. He pointed out that most people think it is praiseworthy in a prince to keep his word and live with integrity. Nevertheless, Machiavelli argued that in the real world of power and politics a prince must sometimes mislead the people and lie to his opponents. As a historian and political thinker, Machiavelli suggested that in order for a prince to accomplish great things, he must be crafty enough to not only overcome the suspicions but also gain the trust of others.

WRITERS OF THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE

Petrarch and Boccaccio

Francesco Petrarch was one of the earliest and most influential humanists. Some have called him the father of Renaissance humanism. He was also a great poet. Petrarch wrote both in Italian and in Latin. In Italian, he wrote sonnets—14-line poems. They were about a mysterious woman named Laura, who was his ideal woman. (Little is known of Laura except that she died of the plague in 1348.) In classical Latin, he wrote letters to many important friends.

The Italian writer Giovanni Boccaccio is best known for the Decameron, a series of realistic, sometimes off-color stories. The stories are supposedly told by a group of worldly young people waiting in a rural villa to avoid the plague sweeping through Florence The Decameron presents both tragic and comic views of life. In its stories, the author uses cutting humor to illustrate the human condition. Boccaccio presents his characters in all their individuality and folly.

Vittoria Colonna

The women writers who gained fame during the Renaissance usually wrote about personal subjects, not politics. Yet some of them had great influence. Vittoria Colonna (1492–1547) was born of a noble family. In 1509, she married the Marquis of Pescara. He spent most of his life away from home on military campaigns. Vittoria Colonna exchanged sonnets with Michelangelo and helped Castiglione publish The Courtier. Her own poems express personal emotions. When her husband was away at the Battle of Ravenna in 1512, she wrote to him.

An ardent humanist and intellectual, Colonna was active in literary, political, and religious life. Her poetry, written in the vernacular, was widely published during her lifetime. Vittoria Colonna was the first secular woman writer to attain high literary status in Italy, and her achievements made her a role model for later women writers.

ARTISTIC IDEAS SPREAD

Objective: Trace the impact of the Renaissance on German and Flemish painters.

In 1494, a French king claimed the throne of Naples in southern Italy and launched an invasion through northern Italy. As the war dragged on, many Italian artists and writers left for a safer life in northern Europe. They brought with them the styles and techniques of the Italian Renaissance. In addition, northern European artists who studied in Italy carried Renaissance ideas back to their homelands.

ARTISTIC IDEAS SPREAD

German Painters

Perhaps the most famous person to do this was the German artist Albrecht Dürer. He traveled to Italy to study in 1494. After returning to Germany, Dürer produced woodcuts and engravings. Many of his prints portray religious subjects. Others portray classical myths or realistic landscapes. The popularity of Dürer’s work helped to spread Renaissance styles.

Dürer’s emphasis upon realism influenced the work of another German artist, Hans Holbein the Younger. Holbein specialized in painting portraits that are almost photographic in detail. He emigrated to England where he painted portraits of King Henry VIII and other members of the English royal family.

Flemish Painters

The support of wealthy merchant families in Flanders helped to make Flanders the artistic center of northern Europe. The first great Flemish Renaissance painter was Jan van Eyck. Van Eyck used recently developed oil-based paints to develop techniques that painters still use. By applying layer upon layer of paint, van Eyck was able to create a variety of subtle colors in clothing and jewels. Oil painting became popular and spread to Italy.

In addition to new techniques, van Eyck’s paintings display unusually realistic details and reveal the personality of their subjects. His work influenced later artists in northern Europe.

Flemish painting reached its peak after 1550 with the work of Pieter Bruegel the Elder. Bruegel was also interested in realistic details and individual people. He was very skillful in portraying large numbers of people. He captured scenes from everyday peasant life such as weddings, dances, and harvests. Bruegel’s rich colors, vivid details, and balanced use of space give a sense of life and feeling.

NORTHERN WRITERS TRY TO REFORM SOCIETY

Objective: Profile key northern Renaissance writers.

Italian humanists were very interested in reviving classical languages and classical texts. When the Italian humanist ideas reached the north, people used them to examine the traditional teachings of the Church. The northern humanists were critical of the failure of the Christian Church to inspire people to live a Christian life.

This criticism produced a new movement known as Christian humanism. The focus of Christian humanism was the reform of society. Of particular importance to humanists was education. The humanists promoted the education of women and founded schools attended by both boys and girls.

NORTHERN WRITERS TRY TO REFORM SOCIETY

Christian Humanists

The best known of the Christian humanists were Desiderius Erasmus of Holland and Thomas More of England. The two were close friends.

In 1509, Erasmus wrote his most famous work, The Praise of Folly. This book poked fun at greedy merchants, heartsick lovers, quarrelsome scholars, and pompous priests. Erasmus believed in a Christianity of the heart, not one of ceremonies or rules. He thought that in order to improve society, all people should study the Bible.

Thomas More tried to show a better model of society. In 1516, he wrote the book Utopia. In Greek, utopia means “no place.” In English it has come to mean an ideal place as depicted in More’s book. The book is about an imaginary land where greed, corruption, and war have been weeded out. In Utopia, because there was little greed, Utopians had little use for money.

More wrote in Latin. Eventually, his writing was translated into a variety of languages including French, German, English, Spanish, and Italian, making his ideas widely available.

Women’s Reforms

During this period the vast majority of Europeans were unable to read or write. Those families who could afford formal schooling usually sent only their sons. One woman spoke out against this practice. Christine de Pizan was highly educated for the time and was one of the first women to earn a living as a writer. Writing in French, she produced many books, including short stories, biographies, novels, and manuals on military techniques. She frequently wrote about the objections men had to educating women. In one book, The Book of the City of Ladies, she wrote.

Christine de Pizan was one of the first European writers to question different treatment of boys and girls. However, her goal of formal education for children of both sexes would not be achieved for several centuries.

THE ELIZABETHAN AGE

Objective: Describe the origins of the Elizabethan Age and Elizabethan drama.

The Renaissance spread to England in the mid-1500s. The period was known as the Elizabethan Age, after Queen Elizabeth I. Elizabeth reigned from 1558 to 1603. She was well educated and spoke French, Italian, Latin, and Greek. She also wrote poetry and music. As queen she did much to support the development of English art and literature.

THE ELIZABETHAN AGE

William Shakespeare

The most famous writer of the Elizabethan Age was William Shakespeare. Many people regard him as the greatest playwright of all time. Shakespeare was born in 1564 in Stratford-upon-Avon, a small town about 90 miles northwest of London. By 1592 he was living in London and writing poems and plays, and soon he would be performing at the Globe Theater.

Like many Renaissance writers, Shakespeare revered the classics and drew on them for inspiration and plots. His works display a masterful command of the English language and a deep understanding of human beings. He revealed the souls of men and women through scenes of dramatic conflict. Many of these plays examine human flaws. However, Shakespeare also had one of his characters deliver a speech that expresses the Renaissance’s high view of human nature.

Shakespeare’s most famous plays include the tragedies Macbeth, Hamlet, Othello, Romeo and Juliet, and King Lear, and the comedies A Midsummer Night’s Dream and The Taming of the Shrew.

PRINTING SPREADS RENAISSANCE IDEAS

Objective: Explain how printing spread ideas.

The Chinese invented block printing in which a printer carved words or letters on a wooden block, inked the block, and then used it to print on paper. Around 1045, Bi Sheng invented movable type, which uses a separate piece of type for each character in the language. The Chinese writing system contains thousands of different characters, so most Chinese printers found movable type impractical. However, the method would prove practical for Europeans because their languages can be written using a small number of letters.

By the early 1400s in Europe, paper had replaced parchment, a writing

material made from animal hides. Parchment was expensive and could not be mass-produced. Paper could be produced quickly and inexpensively. Its availability helped facilitate the printing of whole books.

PRINTING SPREADS RENAISSANCE IDEAS

Gutenberg Improves the Printing Process

During the 13th century, block-printed items reached Europe from China. European printers began to use block printing to create whole pages to bind into books. However, this process was too slow to satisfy the Renaissance demand for knowledge, information, and books.

Around 1440 Johann Gutenberg, a craftsman from Mainz, Germany, developed a printing press that incorporated a number of technologies in a new way. The process made it possible to produce books quickly and cheaply. Using this improved process, Gutenberg printed a complete Bible, the Gutenberg Bible, in about 1455. It was the first full -sized book printed with movable type.

The printing press enabled a printer to produce hundreds of copies of a single work. For the first time, books were cheap enough that many people could buy them. At first printers produced mainly religious works. Soon they began to provide books on other subjects such as travel guides and medical manuals.

CULTURAL AND SOCIAL ACHIEVEMENTS

Objective: Describe the artistic breakthroughs and achievements of Renaissance artists.

Changes in Literature

Renaissance writers produced works that reflected their time, but they also used techniques that writers rely on today. Some followed the example of the medieval writer Dante. He wrote in the vernacular, or his native language, instead of Latin. Dante’s native language was Italian. Writing in the vernacular meant that books could be read by anyone, not just people who had been taught Latin.

In addition, Renaissance writers wrote either for self-expression or to portray the individuality of their subjects. In these ways, writers of the Renaissance began trends that modern writers still follow.

The European Renaissance was a period of great artistic and social change. It marked a break with the medieval ideals that were focused around the Church. The Renaissance belief in the dignity of the individual played a key role in the gradual rise of democratic ideas.

Furthermore, the impact of the movable-type printing press was tremendous. Some historians have suggested that its effects were even more dramatic than the arrival of personal computers in the 20th century.

CULTURAL AND SOCIAL ACHIEVEMENTS

Changes in Architecture

The study of classical texts showed that the Greeks and Romans used ratios and proportions to give structure to their art. By focusing on ratios, or the relationships between numbers, Renaissance architects created designs that feel balanced and harmonious. Many cities, especially in Italy, are dominated by the impressive domes of Renaissance architecture. The Palladian style, inspired by the work of Andrea Palladio, influenced architecture throughout Europe and in the United States.

As the classical style spread to other countries, it was combined with local traditions. In France, architects combined classical style and French traditions to create a more elaborate French Renaissance style. This style spread from western Europe through northern and central Europe. In Russia, which was strongly influenced by the Byzantines, the new ruler hired Italian architects and builders to rebuild Moscow. The resulting style as a blend of Italian, Byzantine, and Russian traditions. In Spain, during the centuries of Islamic rule, a style known as Moorish had developed. Elements of Moorish and classical style were combined to create a distinctive Spanish style, with intricately detailed surface ornamentation.

Changes in Art

During the Renaissance, artistic styles changed as artists incorporated humanistic ideas in their work. Medieval artists had used religious subjects to convey a spiritual ideal, often arranging saints and Biblical figures in stiff groups. Renaissance painters often portrayed religious subjects, but they used a realistic style copied from classical models. They used light and shadow (called chiaroscuro) to give scenes added depth and fullness. As well as creating religious works, painters created secular works. Greek and Roman subjects also became popular.

New techniques and media also changed art. One important change was the introduction of paint that used oils as a binding agent. Earlier types of paint used binders such as eggs, which dry quickly. The longer drying time of oil paint meant artists could continue to add detail to a work for a longer period of time. A key technique was the use of perspective to show three dimensions on a flat surface.

Following the new emphasis on the individual, painters began to paint prominent citizens. These realistic portraits revealed what was distinctive about each person. In addition, artists used a realistic style when depicting the human body. Sculptors made sculpture more realistic by carving natural postures and expressions that reveal personality.

Changes in Society

The development of moveable type had a profound effect on society. Within a few years of the introduction of the printing press, the cost of books had fallen dramatically. More people had access to books, which prompted an increase in literacy rates. Also, printing made

it easy for people to share new ideas. This facilitated some important

changes and reforms in the early modern age as people began to challenge some of the structures of established religion and government.

Printing also made it easier to share new information and discoveries,

which often led to further discoveries as other people built on what they read. The ability to print maps and charts made it possible for others to follow in the tracks of explorers.

THE LEGACY OF THE RENAISSANCE

Objective: Summarize skepticism and its impact.

The artists, writers, and thinkers of the Renaissance produced many extraordinary works that still command attention today. However, the Renaissance spirit led to still more advances in the decades that followed.

THE LEGACY OF THE RENAISSANCE

The Spirit of Inquiry

One of the hallmarks of the Renaissance was a questioning attitude. People were no longer willing to blindly follow tradition and accept authority. They wanted to form their own opinions and make up their own minds. As Renaissance humanists rediscovered Greek philosophy, some were drawn by the tradition of skepticism. Where medieval thinkers accepted many ideas without questioning them, skepticism questioned everything. The practice of examining everything to check assumptions became part of the scientific method that transformed medicine, physics, and other branches of science. It also led to questions about religion and faith and prompted an upheaval within Christianity.

There was also an increased curiosity about the world. Over the course of the Crusades, thousands of Europeans traveled to the eastern Mediterranean. Crusaders who returned with silk and spices created a market for these items. Merchants addressed this market by extending their trade networks still further. Stories about far-away places made some people wonder what else was out there. As navigational tools improved, this curiosity led to the Age of Exploration.

Because of these fundamental changes, Renaissance ideas continued to have a profound influence on European thought in the decades that followed.