AP PSYC - Unit 4: Learning

Associations

you know these missing lyrics via association

Associative Learning

• association learning connects certain events that occur together
• Classical Conditioning: 2 stimuli = anticipated result (e.g. dark clouds = rain)
• Operant Conditioning: associate response w/consequences (e.g. kids think doctor's office = shot)
• Imprinting: phase-sensitive learning independent of consequences (e.g. sexual "types" or "fetishes")

Non-Associative Learning

Adaptation ≠ Habituation!

Non-Associative Learning

• habituates = decreased response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it

• sensitization = repeated administration of a stimulus results in the progressive amplification of a response
• Eric Kandal experimented on sea slug of the genus Aplysia in 1960s (won Nobel Prize in 2000)
• electric shock to siphon, retracts gills; a slight touch w/finger = same effect

Schallhorn, C. [Charles Schallhorn]. (2012). Sensory adaptation v habituation [video]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/PnKSA6fGp6w

Cognitive Learning

Cognitive Learning

• the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language
• Observational Learning = doing what we see other's do (e.g. kids pretending talking on mom's cell phone) - aka "Social Learning"
• Albert Bandura pioneered in 1963 Bobo doll study (important guy to know - 4th most cited psychologist)

Ruchti, A. (2016). Reflections on behavioral and cognitive perspectives of learning [blog]. Retrieved from https://blogs.uww.edu/alyssaruchti/2016/11/09/reflections-on-behavioral-and-cognitive-perspectives-of-learning/

Classical Conditioning

• type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli & anticipate events

• Began with Pavlov's famous study (Nobel Prize in 1904 for digestive medicine)

• Expanded by John Watson into behaviorism

Wikimedia Commons https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Classical_Conditioning_Diagram.png

Behaviorism

• the view that psychology

(1) should be an objective science

(2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes.

• Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2)]

Mah, J. [Jerry Mah]. (2011). Behaviourism : Skinner, Pavlov, Thorndike, Watson [diagram]. Retrieved from http://team1cognitiveapproachestolearning.pbworks.com/w/page/46026491/Behaviourism%20%3A%20Skinner%2C%20Pavlov%2C%20Thorndike%2C%20Watson

Conditioning Process

• Neutral Stimulus (NS) = no response before conditioning

• Unconditioned Response (UR) = an unlearned, naturally occurring response

• Unconditioned Stimulus (US) = triggers UR naturally or automatically

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS) = new stimulus to influence response

• Conditioned Response (CR) = new response to CS

[Psychology Notes HQ]. (2017). Behavioural psychology - classic conditioning [blog]. Retrieved from https://www.psychologynoteshq.com/classical-conditioning/

Little Albert Experiment

Waring, P. (2006) Behaviourist explanation of phobias [blog]. Retrieved from http://www.psychology4a.com/behaviourism-phobias.html

Higher-Order Conditioning

• CS in one conditioning experience is paired with a new NS, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus [aka 2nd-order conditioning]

Lumen Learning. (n.d.) Classical conditioning [blog]. Retrieved from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/atd-bhcc-intropsych/chapter/classical-conditioning/

Extinction & Recovery

• extinction = diminishing of a CR when an US does not follow a CS
• (n.b. in operant conditioning = a response is no longer reinforced)
• Spontaneous Recovery = the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished CR
• SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY IS NOT A FORM OF ACQUISITION!

Lumen Learning. (n.d.) Classical conditioning [blog]. Retrieved from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/atd-bhcc-intropsych/chapter/classical-conditioning/

Generalization & Discrimination

• generalization = the tendency, once conditioned, for stimuli similar to the CS to elicit similar responses

• discrimination = the learned ability to distinguish between a CR & stimuli that do not signal an US

These 2 terms appear in other schools of thought, also!

Lumen Learning. (n.d.) Classical conditioning [blog]. Retrieved from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/atd-bhcc-intropsych/chapter/classical-conditioning/

Pavlov's Legacy

• still relevant for 2 reasons:

(1) All organisms respond the same way to classical conditioning

(2) Pavlov showed that learning could be objective

• applications for drug addictions (avoid people, places, & things)

• meds w/certain tastes can trigger immune system response w/taste

Cherry, K. (2019) Ivan Pavlov's influence on psychology [blog]. Retrieved from https://www.verywellmind.com/ivan-pavlov-biography-1849-1936-2795548

Hannin, W. [nadiahannin]. (2017). Thorndike the law of effect [blog]. Retrieved from https://nadiahanin.wordpress.com/2017/12/

Operant Conditioning

• behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

• Term coined by B.F. Skinner

• Based on Thorndike's Law of Effect; more likely to do behaviors w/favorable consequences, vice versa

Haugstulen, K. [Ketil Blom]. (2012). Rat in Skinner box [photo]. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/54812302@N00/7093991205

Skinner Box

• Using Thorndike's law, Skinner used behavior control principles on pigeons (viz. "superstition study")

• developed operant chamber (i.e. "Skinner Box") with a bar/lever animals press to release food/water

Georgi, S. (2016). Operant conditioning part 2 [slideshow]. Retrieved from https://www.slideshare.net/srgeorgi/operant-conditioning-part-2

Reinforcement & Shaping

• Reinforcement = any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

• Shaping = reinforcers guide behavior toward closer & closer approximations of the desired behaviors

• discriminative stimulus = response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)

Shrestha, P. (2017). Positive vs negative reinforcement [blog]. Retrieved from https://www.psychestudy.com/behavioral/learning-memory/operant-conditioning/reinforcement-punishment/positive-negative-reinforcement

Reinforcement Types

• Positive Reinforcement = any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response

• Negative Reinforcement = any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response (n.b. NOT A PUNISHMENT)

Gaonkar, V. (2018). Explanation of primary and secondary reinforcement with examples [image]. Retrieved from https://psychologenie.com/explanation-of-primary-secondary-reinforcement-with-examples

Reinforcers

• Primary Reinforcers = an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological needs

• Conditioned Reinforcers = a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer (aka "secondary reinforcer")

Gomes, J. (2018). Schedules of reinforcement in animal training [blog]. Retrieved from http://www.trainmeplease.com.au/blog/schedules-of-reinforcement-in-animal-training

Reinforcement Schedule

• Reinforcement Schedule = pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

• Continous Reinforcement = reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

• Partial/Intermittent Reinforcement = reinforcing a response only part of the time

Mitchum, R. (2009). Slot Machines: Neuroscience in Action [blog]. Retrieved from https://sciencelife.uchospitals.edu/2009/11/09/slot-machines-neuroscience-in-action/

Partial Reinforcement

• Fixed-Ratio Schedule = reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses (e.g. loyalty programs)

• Variable-Ratio Schedule = reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

• Fixed-Interval Schedule = reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed (e.g. baker checking oven)

• Variable-Interval Schedule = reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals (e.g. slot machines)

Intermittent Reinforcement

Myer, D. (2014). Psychology for AP. New York: Worth Publishers, pg 280.

Shrestha, P. (2017). Positive vs negative punishment [blog]. Retrieved from https://www.psychestudy.com/behavioral/learning-memory/operant-conditioning/reinforcement-punishment/positive-negative-punishment

Punishments

• an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows

• Positive Punishment = decreasing the rate of undesired behavior by adding a certain negative consequence to the individual after the behavior has been exhibited.

• Negative Reinforcement = decreasing the rate of undesired behavior by removing certain favorite or desired item from the individual’s life.

Oprah Winfrey Network [OWN]. (2011). To Spank or Not to Spank: Dr. Phil on Discipline [video]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/MkAsyEKxIAo

Corporal Punishments

1. Punished behavior is suppressed, not forgotten. This temporary state may (negatively) reinforce parents’ punishing behavior

2. Punishment teaches discrimination among situations. (in O.C. discrimination = organism learns certain responses will be reinforced)

3. Punishment can teach fear

4. Physical punishment may increase aggression by modeling aggression as a way to cope with problems (Myers, 2014, pp 281-282)

Sherman, M. (2010). B. F. Skinner and the hoplessness of it all. Psychology Today. Retrieved from https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/real-men-dont-write-blogs/201007/bf-skinner-and-the-hopelessness-it-all

Skinner Legacy

• believed external experiences, not internal thoughts, shape behavior
• critics say he removes personal freedom to control actions
• his response external experiences already control our lives, why not mold it to better humanity?
• lots of behaviorists became advertisers (e.g. Watson)

A Perfect Template

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A Perfect Template

for Various Topics: