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Argumentation Fa21 1101
13
Arguing a Position
ENC1101
Fall 2021
Argumentation
The Norton Field Guide broadly defines arguing as "a strategy that can be used in any kind of writing to support a claim with reasons and evidence" (G/I-3). When we write to argue a position, our purpose is often to persuade an audience to accept our position.
Defining Argumentation
Although we may not realize it, "everything we say or do presents some kind of argument, takes some kind of position" (157). Arguments can be overt or they can be less direct or less specific. No matter what kinds of classes you take throughout your college career, you will be expected to successfully argue discipline-specific positions.
Key Features of Arguing a Position
Key Features of Arguments
A clear and arguable position.
Every argument must contain a claim with which people may reasonably disagree. To be arguable, a position "must reflect one of at least two points of view" (170).
Necessary background information.
Background information helps our readers understand what is being argued.
Good reasons.
What makes an argument an argument are good reasons to back up the claim. One can develop good reasons by exploring their issue strategically and considering the implications of their position.
Key Features of Arguments cont'd
Convincing evidence.
After giving reasons for your position, you need to offer evidence for your reasons. Some types of evidence include facts, statistics, expert testimony, anecdotal evidence, case studies, and textual evidence (171).
Appeals to readers' values.
An effective arguer also considers and appeals to their readers' values and emotions. Some values include fairness, compassion, and honesty. (Think: How can you appeal to ethos, pathos, and logos?)
A trustworthy tone.
As The Norton Field Guide explains, "Arguments can stand or fall on the way the readers perceive the writer" (172). In other words, readers must trust the arguer and believe in their credibility (ethos).
And the Final Key Feature...
Careful consideration of others' positions!
Even when our position is clear and arguable, our background information is comprehensive, our reasons are good, our evidence is convincing, our rhetorical appeals consider our audience's values, and our tone is trustworthy...others may still disagree with us!
This does not necessarily diminish the strength of our argument; rather, it just demonstrates that all arguments have counterarguments. Consequently, it is important that we recognize these counterarguments and acknowledge other points of view. When appropriate, we can refute these counterarguments in our argumentative writing.
Fact vs. Opinion
What Are Facts? What Are Opinions?
When choosing a clear and arguable position, we must make sure our position can be reasonably argued; in other words, if our argument is completely subjective, a matter of taste or opinion, or if it is based on belief or faith alone, then our position will not be reasonably arguable. Claims that are purely matters of fact are also not arguable.
Can you think of some examples of claims that are not arguable?
Keep in Mind...
Facts can be influenced by opinion and bias. This is especially true with facts presented by the media and in qualitative research (research that measures the quality of something rather than its quantity). This is because the arguer has to choose the facts they will present to support their claim.
This act of choosing is inherently an exercise in judgment; it reflects the beliefs and values of the arguer. When we decide what we think is important to include as a reason for our argument, choosing one fact over another fact implicitly (and sometimes explicitly) expresses an opinion.
How to Craft an Effective Argument
The first thing you have to do when writing an argument is to choose a topic. Because fully developed arguments take a great deal of time and work, be sure to choose a topic you are interested and invested in!
Crafting Arguments
The Norton Field Guide suggests not choosing topics that are extremely broad. Instead, better topics are those that:
Interest you right now;
Are focused but not too narrowly;
Have some personal connection to your life (172).
That's Right...the "Big 5" Never Go Away!
No matter what type of writing we do, we must always consider our rhetorical situation: our purpose, audience, genre, stance, and media/design.
Consider Your Rhetorical Situation
Some questions to consider:
What is your purpose for writing?
Do you want to persuade your audience to change their minds? To accept your position as plausible?
Who is your intended audience? Is this issue personal to them? Are they likely to agree or disagree with you? What is your attitude towards your topic?
How do you want your audience to perceive you?
How will any media you use affect your argument? Does your argument call for the use of specific media, or a specific design?
Generating Ideas & Text
The Norton Field Guide suggests the following strategies for generating ideas and text, and assuring that your argument is interesting and persuasive:
Generating Ideas & Text
Explore what you already know about the issue.
Do some research.
Explore the issue strategically.
Reconsider whether the issue can be argued.
Draft a thesis and qualify your thesis.
Come up with good reasons.
Develop support for your reasons.
Identify other positions by acknowledging and/or refuting them.
Strategic Exploration
Strategic Exploration
As you decide on your position, it is important that you explore multiple perspectives. The following are some good methods for exploring issues:
As a matter of definition
When we consider how a topic is defined, we have to consider different perspectives on the topic. How might a proponent of this topic define it? How might an opponent define it?
As a matter of process
Should somebody do something? What kind of processes should be enacted?
As a matter of classification
Some questions to consider: Can the issue be divided into categories? Do different categories suggest particular positions, or perhaps a way of supporting a certain position?
As a matter of comparison
Is one subject considered better--or worse--than another? Somewhere in the middle?
Thesis Statements
Drafting & Qualifying Thesis Statements
After exploring possibilities and deciding on your position, write it out in a complete sentence (176). It is important to then qualify your position. You can qualify your position thinking about it in certain circumstances, with certain conditions, with these limitations, etc. This helps us present our position in a way that does not make it seem like we're saying our position is the only "correct" one.
Examples:
Basic thesis statement: Pod-based coffeemakers should be banned.
Qualified thesis statement: Pod-based coffeemakers should be banned, unless the pods are recyclable.
Basic thesis statement: Genetically modified foods should be permitted in the U.S.
Qualified thesis statement: Genetically modified foods should be permitted in the U.S. if they are clearly labeled as such.
Reasons & Evidence
Reasons & Evidence
Reasons always need to be supported by evidence. When crafting an argument, evidence is "the data you present to support your reasons...Evidence should be sufficient (enough to show that the reasons have merit) and relevant (appropriate to the argument you're making)" (G/I-13).
Evidence can include facts, statistics, examples, expert testimony, anecdotal evidence, textual evidence, scenarios, case studies, and observations. (For more detailed descriptions of different types of evidence, see pp. 401-08 in The Norton Field Guide.)
What counts as evidence for your argument will vary depending on your audience. Consider:
What kind of evidence would matter in a scientific report?
What kind of evidence would best support a literary analysis?
What kind of evidence would count in a research paper arguing for or against the death penalty?
The Importance of Organizing Arguments
Organizing an Argument
While organization is important in all types of writing, it is especially important in argumentative writing. This is because "readers need to be able to follow the reasoning of your argument from beginning to end; your task is to lead them from point to point as you build your case" (178). There are two main ways to do this.
Organizational Strategy #1
Organizational Strategy #1
Reasons to support your argument, followed by opposing arguments:
Give the first reason, with support.
State your thesis.
Introduce the issue, and provide any necessary background information.
Give the second reason, with support.
End with a call to action, a restatement of your thesis, or a statement of implications.
Continue as needed.
Acknowledge and/or refute opposing arguments.
Organizational Strategy #2
Organizational Strategy #2
Reason/opposing argument, reason/opposing argument:
Acknowledge and/or refute opposing arguments.
State your thesis.
Give the first reason, with support.
Introduce the issue, and provide any necessary background information.
Acknowledge and/or refute opposing arguments.
Give the second reason, with support.
End with a call to action, a restatement of your thesis, or a statement of implications.
Continue this pattern as needed, discussing reasons and opposing arguments one by one.
Ways to Respond
Moving from the "I say" stage to the "they say" stage--in other words, moving from our own arguments to responding to the arguments of others--can be a difficult task.
Ways to Respond
As Graff and Birkenstein explain in They Say/I Say, "Moving to the 'I say' stage can be daunting in academia, where it often may seem that you need to be an expert in a field to have an argument at all" (53). However, many students find that good arguments are based not on expert knowledge alone, but also "habits of mind that can be isolated, identified, and used by almost anyone" (53-54).
Yes (Agree)
Agreeing
When agreeing with an argument, it is important that you do more than simply echo the views with which you agree. You must "bring something new and fresh to the table" (Graff and Birkenstein 59). In other words, your argument should participate in and expand upon a larger conversation.
Some ways to agree with substance include: pointing out some unnoticed evidence or line of reasoning that supports a claim; citing relevant and corroborating personal experience; and accessibly translating a particularly challenging or esoteric argument (Graff and Birkenstein 60).
Templates for Agreeing
I agree that _____________ because my experience ___________ confirms it.
X is surely right about ____________ because, as she may not be aware, recent studies have shown that _______________.
X's theory of ______________ is extremely useful because it sheds insight on the difficult problem of __________________.
Those unfamiliar with this school of thought may be interested to know that it basically boils down to ________________.
I agree that ______________, a point that needs emphasizing since so many people believe __________.
If group X is right that _____________, as I think they are, then we need to reassess the popular assumption that _______________.
No (Disagree)
Disagreeing
While disagreeing may initially seem like the easiest way to respond to an argument and generate an essay, effective disagreement can actually be fairly challenging. A response has to do more than just contradict the view it responds to; it must also add something interesting and new to the conversation.
As with any argument, you need to give substantial reasons to support your stance. As Graff and Birkenstein explain in They Say/I Say, "To move the conversation forward (and, indeed, to justify your very act of writing), you need to demonstrate that you have something to contribute" (57).
Templates for Disagreeing (with Reasons)
X is mistaken because she overlooks _________________.
X's claim that ______________ rests upon the questionable assumption that ______________.
I disagree with X's view that ____________ because, as recent research has shown, ______________.
X contradicts herself / can't have it both ways. On the one hand, she argues ______________. On the other hand, she also says _______________.
By focusing on ______________, X overlooks the deeper problem of _______________.
Okay, But (Agree and Disagree)
Agreeing & Disagreeing
It is okay to agree and disagree simultaneously so as long as you ensure your argument is both complicated and nuanced, as well as clear and reader-friendly (Graff and Birkenstein 63).
As Graff and Birkenstein explain in They Say/I Say, "Parallel structure--'yes and no'; 'on the one hand I agree, on the other I disagree'--enables readers to place your argument [in the larger argument]...while still keeping your argument sufficiently complex" (63). Yes/no arguments can also tip more toward agreement or disagreement, depending on your stance.
Templates for Agreeing and Disagreeing Simultaneously
Although I agree with X up to a point, I cannot accept his overall conclusion that _____________.
Although I disagree with much that X says, I fully endorse his final conclusion that ______________.
Though I concede that _______________, I still insist that _______________.
Whereas X provides ample evidence that _______________, Y and Z's research on ____________ and ______________ convinces me that ______________ instead.
X is right that ______________, but she seems on more dubious ground when she claims that ________________.
While X is probably wrong when she claims that ____________, she is right that _____________.
I'm of two minds about X's claim that ________________. On the one hand, I agree that __________. On the other hand, I'm not sure if ________________.
My feelings on the issue are mixed. I do support X's position that _____________, but I find Y's argument about _____________ and Z's research on ______________ to be equally persuasive.