Introducing
Your new presentation assistant.
Refine, enhance, and tailor your content, source relevant images, and edit visuals quicker than ever before.
Trending searches
Bending of light rays passing through layers of air with extremely different temperature (optical effect)
Larger scale than shimmering
Sand becomes hot and heats the air above it, when sunlight reaches hot air near the ground, the light is refracted upwards. We assume the origin of the light as being on the ground because we think light always travels in a straight line
the inside several times
before exiting the top
causing a sparkle
Apparent movement of objects in hot air over surfaces
Are caused by refraction of light in unevenly heated air. Cooler air is denser than hotter air and there is no boundary between cold and warm air so light doesn’t bend but travels along a curved path. Air always moves but refraction changes which causes shimmering.
Thin flat cells that are semi-permeable barrier between the in and outside of body
Transports water and minerals from root to plant. Not alive, hollow tubes with rigid walls.
If the lens equation makes a negative image distance, then the image is a virtual image on the same side of the lens as the object. If it makes a negative focal length, then the lens is a diverging lens. The lens equation can be used to calculate the image distance for either real or virtual images and for either positive on negative lenses.
At first the waves are parallel to each other
Columns of cells that line small intestine, stomach and glands
Photosynthesis and Balancing Equations
Plant cells have chloroplast which contains chlorophyll and allows plants to conduct photosynthesis. During photosynthesis, plants convert carbon dioxide and water into and oxygen. In a balanced equation format, in which the mass is equal on both sides, this looks like:
6CO2 + 6H20 →
C6H1206 + 6O2
Camera Lenses & Films (Technology Project)
Lens: As the distance between the lens and the real image increases, the light beams spread out more, forming a larger real image. But the size of the film stays constant. When you attach a very flat lens, it projects a large real image but the film is only exposed to the middle part of it. A rounder lens produces a smaller real image, so the film surface sees a much wider area of the scene .
Film: A photographic film is a suspension of silver halide 'grains' (crystals) in a gelatin matrix. This gelatin matrix is melted and applied to a polymer base that holds the film together. The light sensitivity of this silver halide suspension is this reaction:
Ag+Br- (crystal) + hv (photon of light) → Ag+ + Br + e-
The silver ion can then combine with the electron: Ag+ + e- → Ag
Transports sugars made from photosynthesis, some hormones and nutrients up and down the plant.
Forms when sunlight enters water droplet and refracts, reflects of inner surface and refracts again when leaving. Two refractions cause dispersion of light. Because red is refracted downward the
most, its only visible
from droplets high in
the sky making it the
top colour in the rainbow.
Line skin and internal organs. Made of cells with connections between adjoining cell membranes so they can form a protective barrier
Process of separating colours by refraction. White light includes all visible wavelengths of light. White light entering a prism is refracting twice; enters prism and exits prism.
Red light = slowest = refracts least
Violet light = fastest = refracts most
Gamma Rays and Cancer:
Gamma rays penetrate human tissues.
Cancer occurs when one or more checkpoints in the cell cycle fail, and the cell divides uncontrollably.
Gamma rays can be used for killing cancerous cells and maximizing healthy cells.
The waves that hit the medium slows down causing the wave to change direction
Global Warming and Plants
Global warming causes desertification, a process in which land dries out until little or no vegetation can survive and land becomes a desert due to a water shortage.
This means that the root system of a plant doesn't have water to absorb from the soil and transport to the top of the plant. This will kill the plant.
Then they hit the medium
Filler between dermal and vascular tissues (most of plant). Make nutrients through photosynthesis, store carbohydrates in roots and provides storage and support in the stems.
Transports water, minerals and other substances around plant. Water and nutrients are absorbed by roots and sugars made in leaves are delivered to cells through the plant.
Change shape by shortening or lengthening
Cells line up and are attached to the bone, allowing body to move. Found in legs, lower abdomen, and back
Cells are tapered at both ends, contract slowly and can be sustained for a long time. Found in blood vessels, and walls of internal organs
Stem Cells and Vision Defects:
Stem cell: Unspecialized cells that can produce various types of cells
Strategies for using stem cells to treat eye diseases (eg: hyperopia, myopia, astigmatism) take advantage of the properties of stem cells to regenerate damaged cells within the eye to either make the eye longer or shorter depending on what defects the eye has.
Shimmering and Transfer of Heat in the Atmosphere:
Shimmering is caused by refraction of light in unevenly heated air.
In the atmosphere, cooler air is denser and rises, while warm air is less dense and falls in.
There is no boundary between cold and warm air so light doesn’t bend but travels along a curved path. Air always moves but refraction changes which causes shimmering.
Nuclei branched unevenly and are between cells. Contracts as a unit and only found in heart
Made of neurons. Coordinate body actions through impulses that travel throughout the body. Some relay signals from muscles to glands, others detect information from their environment and trigger responses.
Refracted Ray: The ray that is bent upon entering a second medium
Angle of Refraction: Angle between the normal and refracted ray
Large tightly packed cells found under skin and around organs. Used for energy storage and insulation (warmth)
Blurred/distorted vision caused by incorrectly shaped cornea that is oval instead of round
Thin layer of cells covering all non-woody surfaces of plant
Outermost layer of plant
Group of cells that function together to perform a specialized task
Ground tissue gives physical support and vascular tissues transports waters, nutrients and sugars. Epidermal tissue provides protective layer, covered by a waxy cuticle.
Tiny openings under the leaf that allow water vapour, carbon dioxide and oxygen to enter and exit leaves. Surrounded by guard cells that opens and closes it.
Pistil (Stigma, style, ovary)
Eggs located in ovary
Strengthen, support and connect cells and tissues
All tissues are formed from groups of meristematic cells found in the tips of roots and shoots and in the stem found in plant cells.
Uses index of refraction to calculate angle of a refracted ray
N1sin1 = n2sin2
Specialized leaf from meristematic tissue.
Accomplish pollination (sexual reproduction) using the wind (make plain flowers) and animals or insects (make more elaborate flowers) because their colour and scent attracts insects/animals to pick up pollen from the male part
The layer of tissue that produces bark on stem and roots in woody plants.
1. Incident ray, refracted ray and the normal all lie on the same plane
2. The refracted ray bends towards the normal when light travels from fast to slow speed. The refracted ray bends
away from the normal
when light travels from
slow to fast speed
Cells surrounded by calcium hardened tissue containing blood vessels
Stamen (Filament and anther) Produces pollen
Phenomenon where incident light is entirely reflected back from boundary (no refraction occurs)
A transparent object with at least one curved side that causes light to refract
Bending of light rays as they pass between two different medias
The ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in a given medium
Process by which cells develop from similar cells develop to perform specific functions
Process by which body parts are regrown
Lenses have two sides that can be plane, concave or convex
N = C/V or
N = sinangleI / sinangleR
N- index of refraction
C- speed of light in vacuum
V- speed of light in medium
1. Light must be travelling from a slower to faster medium
2. Angle of incidence is larger than the critical angle so that no refraction into the second medium occurs
Organs forming digestive system mechanically and chemically break down food making nutrients molecule cells can absorb
Stage of development of a living organism during which specialized cells form
Reach deeper for water
1. Epidermis – Prevents bacteria. Viruses from entering and makes vitamin D when exposed to the sun.
2. Dermis – Inner layer; made of connective, nervous, muscle tissues. Blood vessels that dilate when hot to release heat, release sweat, layers of fat – insulation, nerves sense pain, cold, heat, pressure
Provide a larger surface area
1. Mutation – A random change in the DNA of the cell. Mostly results in cell death but the ones that survive become cancerous.
2. Carcinogen –
Environmental factors
such as uv rays,
x rays, tobacco smoke,
and chemicals.
Process in which cancer cells break away from the original tumour and establishing another tumour elsewhere.
An image formed by rays that appear to be coming from a certain position but actually aren’t. Imagine cannot
be projected on
a screen.
Undifferentiated plant cells that can divide and differentiate to form specialized cells. Found in areas of active growth (Tips of roots and shoots, layer of stem called cambium)
Checking for cancer even
when there are no symptoms
Extending rays that reach the eye behind the mirror helps determine where object is seen
1. PAP Test – Testing for cervical cancer in women
2. PSA Test – Testing for prostate cancer in men
Cell produces proteins and organelles
Tumour interferes with the functioning of surrounding cells because it produces more waste, needs more nutrients and expands.
Cell makes copy of DNA and proteins
Cell produces organelles needed for cell division
Largest organ in body
Reflecting surface curves outwards
Tumour doesn’t affect surrounding cells.
Passes beam of electrons through thin slices of material
Provides information about surface of samples
The structure that holds the sister chromatids together as chromosomes
1. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal always lie on the same plane
2. The angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence
Ring of proteins around middle of cell contracts and two identical daughter cells form.
Golgi body produces vesicles that carry materials to make a new cell wall. Vesicles form cell wall between nucleus and old cell wall. Cytoplasm is divided into two.
Muscular pump that supplies blood to the whole body. 4 chambers:
1. Left and right atria
2. Left and right ventricles
Mass of cells that continue to grow and divide without any obvious function.
Incident Ray: Ray of light that travels from light source towards a surface
Reflected Ray: Ray that bounces off the reflective surface
Pair of organs involved in respiration. Allow you to breathe in oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide.
1. Connective tissue
2. Epithelial tissue
One of two identical strands of DNA that make up the chromosomes.
nutrients
matic, ground &
vascular tissue
Measured with a ruler on microscope; count spaces you see in mm and count halves as well.
Measures diameter; convert mm to micrometers, equation:
Unspecialized cells that can produce various types of cells. When it divides, daughter cells can develop into different cells depending on what part of the DNA is switches on inside each cell.
Chromosomes condense and are copied into two identical chromatids
Use beam of electrons instead of light
Highly condensed DNA
A group of diseases in which cells grow and divide uncontrollably as a result of a change in the DNA that controls the cell
cycle. One or more
checkpoints in the
cell cycle fail, so
the cell divides
uncontrollably.
1. Embryonic: Made from embryos and can become any type of cell through differentiation
2. Tissue (Adult): Only become certain limited types of cells, usually involved in repairing damaging tissues
Created when eggs are fertilized in lab. 5 days after fertilization, the mass of new stem cells are multiplied into millions of healthy step cells in a lab disk.
As cells grow, there is less surface area per unit of volume. Cell needs enough surface area to
service its volume.
Object: Actual thing placed in front of the mirror
Image: Likeness seen in mirror
Necroris – Cell death as a result of injury or death. (Sunburn)
Apoptosis – Controlled cell death of cells that are no longer useful.
Angles of Incidence: Angle between the incident ray and the normal
Angle of Reflection: Angle between the reflected ray and the normal
Field of View: View you actually see when you look through a microscope
Magnification: Power of the objective lens multiplied by the power of the ocular lens.
When cell reaches a certain size, it divides to make smaller cells.
Mirror: Any polished surface reflecting an image
Reflection: The bouncing back of light from a surface
Normal: A line that is perpendicular to a surface where a ray of light meets the surface
Plane Mirror: Flat Mirror
Reflecting surface curves inward
Images appear distorted
Reproduction of an object through the use of an optical device like a mirror
The science of using microscopes to view objects or
samples.
Size: Same/larger/smaller than image
Attitude: Upright or inverted
Location: Closer/farther than or same distance as object in mirror
Type: Real or virtual
Diffusion – Movement of molecules from an area of higher to lower concentration
Concentration – Amount of substance present in a given volume.
Heart, blood, blood vessels.
Transports oxygen through the body and carries away waste, moves nutrients from intestine to the rest of the body, blood regulates body temperature and carries disease fighting white cells.
Heart contracts and pushes blood through the body and the valves don’t let it go backwards.
Diffusion allows oxygen to enter blood and carbon dioxide to leave
1. Arteries – Carry oxygenated blood away from heart (great pressure)
2. Veins – Carry deoxygenated blood to the heart (low pressure)
3. Capillaries – Enable exchange of gases, nutrients and waste between blood and body tissues
PLANT CELLS
Cell Wall: Rigid frame around plant that provides strength, support and protection
Chloroplast: Green substance that contains chlorophyll which is used for photosynthesis
Central Vacuole: Stores water and swells when water enters, making the plant firm
Cell
Membrane: Semi
permeable barrier around
cell
Chromosomes: Coiled DNA
Cytoplasm: Inside of cell where organelles are suspended
Endoplasmic Reticulum: Carry materials through cell
Golgi Apparatus: Packages proteins made from the ER and delivers them around cell
Mitochondrian: Supplies energy to cell
Nucleus: Controls
cell functions
Ribosomes: Assemble
proteins
Made up of nose, mouth, trachea,
bronchi, lungs.
Obtains oxygen &
releases carbon
dioxide.
1. All living organisms are made of one or more cells
2. The cell is the basic organizational unit of life.
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells.
Process where broken down food passes through wall of intestine into bloodstream
The measure of how much larger or smaller an image is compared to itself
M= hi (height of image) /
ho (height of object)
M= di (distance of image) /
do (distance of object)
1. Air enters through the nose, pharynx and down the trachea
2. Trachea splits into two bronchi which deliveres air to lungs
3. Epithelial cells in trachea and bronchi make mucus and have cilia
4. Each bronchi branch out again twice, and end in alveoli
Transpiration pulls water up xylem
Cohesion: Ability of water molecules to cling to each other. Pulls water molecules up xylem to leaves.
Adhesion: Tendancy of water molecules to stick to surfaces. Helps water to stick to xylem walls and not flow downwards.
Tiny air sac in lungs where gas exchange takes place between air and blood where gas exchange takes place
Umbra: Darkest part of shadow (all light rays are blocked)
Penumbra: Brightest part of shadow (partial shadow within a shadow)
Small Light: Casts a sharp, well defined shadow
Large Light: Casts a shadow with blurred edges
1. Teeth mechanically break down food, saliva lubricates food and chemically breaks down starch in the mouth.
2. After the food is swallowed it goes through the pharynx and then the esophagus.
3. The esophagus moves food along using peristalis.
4. The food is churned and mixed with gastric juices with enzymes to break down proteins in the stomach.
5. At the bottom of the stomach, the contents are released into the small intestine.
6. In the duodenum, ducts connect it to the pancreas, liver and gall bladder which secrete more enzymes.
7. Then, millions of villi maximize the surface area where the absorption of nutrients in the blood takes place.
8. The large intestine absorbs water, vitamins, salts and eliminates undigested food through the anus as feces.
Store energy as starch or oils
Transparent: Transmits nearly all incident light (see-through)
Translucent: Transmits some incident light but absorbs or reflects the rest
Opaque: Doesn’t transmit any incident light, only absorbs and reflects
Drawing that shows light path with arrow after it leaves the source
frequency x wavelength
The only form of energy that can travel through empty space (doesn’t need a medium)
Behaves as an electromagnetic wave and is transferred through radiation and involves movement of energy from one point to another
Speed of light: 3x10 8 m/s
1. Regular Reflection
Reflection off of a smooth surface (mirror,water)
Angles of incidence and angles of reflection are each identical and parallel
2. Diffuse Reflection
Reflection of light off an irregular/dull surface (water with waves, crumpled aluminum foils)
Angles of incidence and angles of reflection are each different and non-parallel
Medium: Any physical substance through which energy can be transferred
Radiation: A method of energy transfer that doesn’t require a medium (energy travels at the speed of light)
Electromagnetic Radiation: A wave that has both electric and magnetic parts (doesn’t require a medium and travels at the speed of light)
Smallest unit that can perform the functions of life.
size of the shadow
depends on the size of
the object blocking the
light and distance from
the light
Wavelength: The distance from crest to crest. Measured in lambda.
Amplitude: The height of the wave from rest position to the trough or crest
Frequency: The number of wave repetitions (cycles) per second. Measured with Hertz.
Light slows down in a prism. Red light slows down the least and violet light slows down the most. Due to the fact that light travels at different speeds in a prism, they are separated into individual colours. Each colour has a different wavelength and frequency.
Red light: Longest wavelength and lowest frequency.
Violet light: Shortest wavelength and highest frequency.
Light travels in a straight line until it hits something
1. Eukaryote – A cell that contains a nucleus and other membrane bound organelles.
2. Prokaryote – A cell that doesn’t contain a nucleus or other membrane bound organelles. (Bacteria)
Frequency is inversely related to wavelength. As frequency increases, wavelength decreases and viceversa.
The use of light rays to determine how light behaves when it strikes an object
Specialized structure within a cell that can perform a variety of tasks.
A line in a diagram representing the direction and path the light is traveling
Integumentary: Blood vessels dilate and more blood comes to the skin surface, and releases heat which is why you look red.
Circulatory: In order to keep a steady supply of oxygen to muscles, and heart beats faster. The blood flow to other organs that aren't being used as much is reduced.
Respiratory: Breath faster because the heart beats faster. The lungs allow more air to enter.
Nervous: Stimulates increase in the heart rate. Signals tell some blood vessels to dilate, and others to reduce blood flow from certain organs.
Store energy as glycogen, carbohydrates and fats
Have specialized
compounds
(cholesterol)
A disturbance that transfers energy without transferring matter
Light produced by a material that hasn’t been
heated
Crest – Highest point in a wave
Trough – Lowest point in a wave
Rest position – Lowest level
of water when there
are no waves
Ability to store energy from a light source and slowly emit it over a long period of time
(glow in the dark)
2. MICROWAVES
3. INFRARED WAVES
Organ systems work together to maintain acceptable physical and chemical conditions that allow organ systems to function optimally
Transverse Wave: Consists of oscillations occurring perpendicular to the direction of energy transfer.
Longitudinal Wave: The displacement of the medium is parallel to the direction of travel of the wave
4. VISIBLE LIGHT
5. ULTRAVIOLET RAYS
The process of producing light by passing an electric current through gas
Light emitted from a very hot object
In a light bulb, electrical energy causes the atoms within the tungsten wire to get hot and glow
Very inefficient
95% of energy is lost as heat
5% of energy is converted to light
For all light sources, atoms absorb energy and becomes exited, when atoms relax the energy is released as light
The range of electromagnetic waves arranged in the order of wavelength or frequency
1. Latitude
3. Air masses that flow over a region
Luminous: An object that produces its own light (sun)
Non-luminous: An object that doesn’t produce its own light (tree)
Characteristic weather patterns (temperature, wind, velocity) in a particular region averaged over at least 30 years
Determines: Types of weather expected in a specific time of year and plants/animals living in a certain area
from the poles to the
equator and back
again
different direct sunlight
LED: Light produced as a result of a small amount of electric current flowing through a semiconductor
Don’t have a filament, don’t produce heat, more efficient
Semiconductor: A material that can be made to change how well it conducts electricity
Atmospheric conditions (wind, temperature, precipitation) in a particular region over a short period of time
2. Elevation
4. Nearness to a large body of water
synthetic
A form of invisible higher energy radiation
Period: Horizontal row (1-7)
Group/Family: Vertical column (1-18)
Earth’s surface absorbs UV and visible light and reflects lower energy infrared light into space, which is why the Earth is hot.
Dimitri Mendeleev organized the elements according to atomic mass in the 1860s
Energy present in the motion of particles at a particular temperature
A form of invisible lower energy radiation
Thin layer of Earth that has the conditions to support all life
Large geographical area with a defined climate
3. The radiation may be reflected off of the particle
1. The radiation may be absorbed causing the particle to heat up and get warm
All of the water on or around Earth. Water cycle moves water and energy from one place to another. When water evaporates, energy is absorbed (cooler Earth) water vapour condenses which causes energy to get released (warmer Earth)
2. The radiation may be transmitted through the particle
Thin layer of gases surrounding the Earth. Reflects, absorbs or radiates energy from the sun by trapping Sun’s energy.
Metals: Elements found in first 12 groups on left side. All solid (except for Hg), shiny, conduct heat/electricity, malleable, ductile
Non-metals: Elements found in groups 13-18 on the right side. All gases or solids, not shiny, poor conductors of heat and electricity, brittle, not ductile
Metalloids: Diagonal line in between metals and non-metals and share properties with both.
Short summer, long winter
Plants: Mosses, lichens
Animals: Polar bear, caribou
1. Alkali Metals (Silvery, soft, highly reactive)
2. Alkaline Earth Metals (Silvery, light, reactive)
3. Halogens (Non-metals, most reactive)
4. Noble gases (Colourless, odourless, least reactive)
Made up of rocks, minerals and soil in the Earth’s crust. Absorbs high energy radiation, converts it into thermal energy and remits visible light and lower energy radiation.
Mass Number = Number of protons – Number of neutrons
Number of neutrons = Atomic mass – Atomic number
Atomic Number: Appears on periodic table. Tells you the number of protons and electrons an atom of an element has.
Atomic Mass: Measure of average mass of atom of element.
Well defined summer and winter
Plants: Grass, flowering plants
Animals: Buffalo, elk
Warm damp summers, mild wet winters
Plants: Coniferous trees, Douglas
Animals: Vulture, grizzly bears
Well defined summer and winter
Plants: Deciduous trees, grasses
Animals: Deer, rabbits
Made of only one kind of matter.
1. Element: Cannot be broken down into a simpler form (eg: H)
2. Compound: Made from two or more elements that are chemically combined together (eg: H20)
The study of the substances around us: what’s in them, what they do, uses
A combination of pure substances
1. Homogenous: Looks the same throughout, separate compounds not visible
2. Heterogeneous: Different parts of mixture are visible
A model of an atom that has the chemical symbol for the element surrounded by dots to represent the valence electrons of the element. (Group number is the number of valence electrons)
Cool summers, cold winter
Plants: Coniferous tree, lichens
Animals: Moose, hawks
Anything that has mass and takes up space
Depends on altitude
Plants: Small coniferous trees, mosses, lichens
Animals: Squirrels, mountain goats
Positively charged ion (Atom loses electrons)
Named by keeping the same name as element.
METALS
Negatively charged ion
(Gains electrons)
Named by adding “-ide” at end NON-METALS
Charged particles that results when an atom gains or loses electrons.
Ions form when atoms of different elements combine with a transfer of electrons from one atom to another. Ions form in a way that produces filled outer shells.
Electrons in an unfilled outer shell that are not part of a pair. (More reactive and likely to bond)
Made of a repeating pattern of ions. Held together by electrostatic forces of attention in a solid known as crystal lattice.
Naming: Write symbol of element and ion charge as superscript
When an element can only form one type of ion, the ion has the same name as the element.
Two electrons interacting in a unique way allowing them to be close together. (Less reactive)
A compound that separates into ions in water forming a solution that conducts electricity
An ion composed of one or more atoms that behaves as a single particle.
NO3, CO3, CIO3, SO4, PO4
Substances that produce H+ ions in an aqueous solution.
eg: Fe, Pb
Made from one or more positive metal ions and one or more negative non-metal
ions
1. Aqeous solutions of acids conduct electric current because of the ions present in the solution
2. Acids generally taste sour and turn litmus paper red
3. Acids produce H2(g) when reacted with certain metals (Fe, Zn) to produce hydrogen gas
4. Acids also react with carbonates
5. Some acids are safe to eat (citric acids) but many are not
Pure substances made of two or more chemically combined elements
1. Ionic compounds
2. Molecular compounds
Amount of solar radiation received
by a region of Earth’s surface.
Depends on latitude,
lithosphere,
hydrosphere and
atmosphere
Movement of thermal energy from an area of high temperature to lower temperature
Transfer of electrons from cation to anion. This happens because the metal has a weak hold on its electrons. The non-metal has a high attraction for the electron and both need full shell.
(water, blood)
Natural process where gases absorb IR radiation emitted by Earth’s surface and radiate it, heating the atmosphere and the Earth.
Substance that dissociates in water to produce OH-
Ionic compounds composed of two different elements
Increased capacity of the atmosphere to absorb thermal energy due to high concentrations of greenhouse gases produced by human which increases the Earth’s temperature
1. Release hydroxide ions when dissolved in water
2. Conduct electricity when dissolved in water
3. Taste bitter
4. Feel slippery
5. Turn red litmus blue
Rapid reaction of a substance with oxygen to produce oxide compounds and energy
CxHy + 02 (hydrocarbon) →
CO2 + H20
1. Binary acids (hydrogen + non-metal)
Write root of the non-metal name, add prefix “hydro” to root name, add ending “ic” to root name (and acid)
eg: HBr becomes hydrobromic acid
2. Oxoacids (hydrogen, oxygen + another element or polyatomic with oxygen)
Write anion (without “-ate” or “-ite”, if anion ended with “-ate” then add “-ic”
eg: H2CrO4 becomes chromic acid
1. Complete Combustion: Combustion reaction of a hydrocarbon in the presence of excess oxygen. The products are CO2(g) water and energy. The fuel burns cleanly and there is no sooty residue.
2. Incomplete Combustion: Combustion reaction of a hydrocarbon in the presence of a limites amount of oxygen. The products are CO(g), CO2(g), soot, water and energy
Atmosphere allows much of the high energy radiation to reach the Earth. The Earth’s surface absorbs this energy and it becomes thermal energy. Earth remits this energy as lower energy infrared energy. The atmosphere traps infrared radiation energy. About half of this energy is returned to Earth’s surface (even more heat).
1. pH Meter: Most accurate and expensive
2. pH indicator: A chemical added in small amounts to solution, show pH through the colour
3. Litmus paper: Red or blue and changes colour to show pH
4. Universal Indicator/pH Paper: Contains several pH indicators to cover the pH scale from 0-14. Produces different colours at different pH values
1. Hard, brittle solids that can be crushed at room temperature
2. Form crystals
3. High melting point
4. Conduct electricity
Develop new technologies to counteract the effects of climate change
Making something milder or less severe. Prevent more gases from going in the atmosphere.
Ionic compound with metal and hydroxide ion
1. Cation = Same as metal
2. Anion = Ends with “-ide”
eg: Mg(OH)2 becomes
magnesium hydroxide
Particle in which atoms are joined by a covalent bond
1. All chemical reactions are accompanied by a change in energy
2. Some reactions absorb or give off energy
3. Reactions happen
at different rates
Go Green: Ontario’s Action Plan on Climate Change
- Reduce greenhouse gas emissions
- Improve public transit in GTA
- Encourage development of jobs related to green tech.
- Decrease use of coal-fired power plants, increase amount of electricity generated from renewable sources
- Protect green spaces and agricultural land
A process in which substances interact, causing the formation of new substances (A rearrangement of atoms)
A chemical reaction in which two or more reactants combine to form a new product
A + B → AB
Molecule consisting of two atoms of either the same or different elements. They come as pairs.
HOFBrINCl
Desertification: Process by which land dries out until little or no vegetation can survive and land becomes a desert (water shortage)
To optimize crop yields, farmer need to supply their crops with fertilizers made with ammonia
N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)
The way a country produces, consumes and distributes goods and services
1. Society must reduce its energy use and find new energy sources other than fossil fuels.
2. Greenhouse gases have to be trapped or chemically converted into a non-gaseous product or chemically converted
Both methods would reduce the carbon footprint (total greenhouse gases produced directly/indirectly by individual community or industry)
1. Trade Winds: Air heats and rises which makes it less dense at the equator. Flows to poles where the cold air goes down because its more dense and it travels to the equator for heat.
2. Westerly Winds: Hot air from the equator cools and sinks and is pushed west by Coriolis effect (causing cold air to be pushed to the west)
3. Easterly Winds: At poles, sinking cold air is pushed to the west.
The reaction of an acid and a base to form a salt (ionic compound and water)
ACID + BASE → WATER + SALT
Movement of air from areas of high to low pressure. The rising and sinking masses of air in convection currents cause change in atmospheric pressure which is what creates wind.
An element takes the place of another element in a compound
A + BC → AC + B
where A + B are metals
A + BC → BA + C
where A + C are
non-metals
A gas (carbon dioxide, methane) that absorbs IR radiation and prevents the escape of thermal energy.
Composed of two different non-metals. Form when atoms share a pair of electrons to form a covalent bond.
When a piece of copper is placed into silver nitrate, metallic silver ions form on the copper. Solution turns blue because copper from wire dissolves in solution and displaces silver from the silver nitrate compound.
Cu(s) + 2AGNO2(aq) → Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2AgO
Increase in the volume of a substance when it’s heated (water expands when heated, warm oceans cause sea level to rise)
A chemical reaction in which a compound breaks down into two or more products
AB → A + B
3. Combine ion names
eg: Sodium Chloride
High altitude winds that travel long distances at high speeds. Carry worm, moist air producing precipitation/dry air causing dry weather
Circular currents in air/fluids caused by rising of warm fluids as cold fluids sink. Transfer thermal energy from areas of net radiation budget surplus to areas of net radiation budget deficit,
1. Name metal ion (element name) – If element is multivalent, roman numeral must be included.
eg: Sodium
Electrolysis: A decomposition reaction that breaks down water and can make hydrogen gas
2H2O (l) → 2H2(g) + O2(g)
2. Name non-metal ion. Change ending to –ide.
eg: Chlorine becomes Chloride
Deflection of any object from a straight line path by rotation of Earth. This causes wind to turn right in the Northern hemisphere and left in the Southern hemisphere. If the Earth wasn’t spinning, there would be continuous convection between the poles.
Greenhouse Gas Sources: Processes that add greenhouse gases to atmosphere
Greenhouse Gas Sinks: Processes that absorb greenhouse gases from atmosphere
Yields/reacts to produce
A chemical that is produced during a reaction
A chemical on the left side of the equation that gets used up during a reaction
The pits in the lining of your stomach secrete HCI. Excess acid production causes a burning sensation. Antacids contain Mg(OH)2 and neutralize stomach acid.
2HCI(aq) + Mg(OH)2(aq) →
2H2O(l) + MgCl2(aq)
The positive ions of two compounds change places and form two new compounds. Often results in the product of an insoluble solid or precipitation.
AB + CD → AD + CB
A and C are cations
B and D are anions
Glaciers are melting, many people depend on them for water
When a yellow aqeous solution of potassium chromate is added to a colourless aqeous solution of silver nitrate, a red precipitate of silver chromate is formed.
3AgNo2(aq) + K2CrO4(aq) →
AgCl(aq) + NaNO3(aq)
Fraction of light reflected by the surface of Earth back into space
The ocean reflects 7% of solar energy
Fresh ice and snow can reflect up to 90%
A sequence of events that cycles back to one of the earlier events and increases income
The average net radiation of Earth is 0 before the industrial revolution.
Every year, flooding, heavy rains and winds cause extensive damage to buildings, bridges, roads (hurricanes form over tropical oceans)
Bond that results from sharing of outer electrons between non-metals.
1. Soft and have varying degrees of solubility in water
2. Do not conduct electricity
3. Lower melting points than ionic compounds
SO2 from industrial processes (ore smelting) and car engines react with water to form sulfuric acid
SO3(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO4(aq)
Global warming:
Observed, increase in Earth’s average annual temperature
Climate Change:
Significant long term change in expected climate patterns
Calcium hydroxide is added to lakes in large amounts to neutralize acid and raise pH.
Cons
Temporary solution, expensive and must be repeated over time since pH drops again with new snowfall.
Plants and animals are sensitive to calcium levels.
NOx is a general formula used to represent a number of nitrogen oxides most of which are produced by cars that burn gas
3NO2(g) + H2O(l) → 2HNO3(aq) + NO(g)
Home territories of plants/animals are changing, migration changes, & grey jays hound food to survive the winter and warmer winters make the supplies rot.
Rain, hail or fog with a pH of less than normal rain (ph 5.6)
Co2 in the air dissolves in water forming carbonic acid
CO2(g) + H2O(l) → H2Co3(aq)
Carbon offsets allow people to compensate for their greenhouse gas emissions by contributing money to improve a carbon sink
30% reflected back into space
30% absorbed by atmosphere
40% warms earth which is reflected back to atmosphere as IR
Involve mathematical equations that describe interactions in the physics, biology, and chemistry of Earth’s climate system. After scientists confirm that a model is usable, they run it to make climate predictions.
Stores of information in tree rings, fossil fuels and ice that can be measured to give hints about what the climate was like in the past
5 - Penta
6 - Hexa
7 - Hepta
8 - Octa
9 - Nona
Use prefixes in front of atoms,
Add "-ide" to ending of second atom
1 - Mono
2 - Di
3 - Tri
4 - Tetra
eg: SO2 becomes sulfur dioxide
The total amount of greenhouse gas emissions caused directly and indirectly by an individual, community, industry, or country.
Scientists have known that aerosols in the atmosphere (generated by burning fossil fuels, and forest fires) have a cooling effect
Nature removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and stores it in plants, soil, and the oceans, both in algae and dissolved in the water itself.
A charge to an individual or company for creating greenhouse gas emissions.
Balanced Equation
1. A precipitate is formed
2. A gas is formed
3. A change of colour
4. New odor
5. Change in temperature
6. Light might be produced
State Symbol: Indicates physical state of the chemical at room temperature
Solid (s) Liquid (l) Gas (g) Aqueous (aq)
Coefficients: Number in front of a formula in a balanced equation to show how many units of a substance is involved in the chemical reaction. Can change.
Subscript: Numbers in small font after an atom to indicate how many atoms are present within a particular compound. Can’t change.
1. Word Equations: Describe chemical reactions using names of reactants and products
No state symbols, element symbols or quantities
2. Skeleton Equation: Using the chemical formulas of the reactants and products. Not a complete equation since coefficients aren’t balanced
3. Balanced Chemical Equations: Demonstrates the law of conservation of mass (Same number of atoms on both side)
Tell us past climates few 100 years ago
Wide Rings: Cool, wet weather (fast growth)
Narrow Rings: Hot dry weather (slow growth)
Light Rings: Spring growth
Dark rings: Late summer
growth
In a chemical reaction, atoms are conserved. Atoms cannot be created nor destroyed.
Properties of
products are
different from
properties of
reactants.
Thermal energy released when water is a liquid and turns into a solid. (warming climate)
Thermal energy absorbed when water is a solid and turns into a liquid which causes a cooling climate.
Driven by the wind. The energy from wind transfers to water causing it to move. Oceam absorbs energy from the sun and the movement of water transfers heat around Earth. Ocean currents bring warm water to poles. Water gets colder and salty making it the most dense ocean water so it sinks to ocean floor at poles. They also bring cool water to the equator.
1. Particles in the ice: Ash, dust, pollen that give information on volcanic eruptions, forest fires and plants.
2. Physical properties of ice: Hail and snowflakes. Gives clues about temperature or humidity when the ice was formed.
3. Trapped Air Bubbles: Gives information about atmospheric compositions and amount of greenhouse gases
4. Ice Composition: Isotope analysis. Each isotope gives information about global temperature.
In a chemical reaction, the total mass of the products is always the same as total mass of the reactants
A government may decide on the maximum amount of carbon dioxide that each company can emit. If a company reduces its emissions by more than the government limit, it can trade this “extra” amount to other companies that have exceeded their maximums.
Positive feedback loop that seems to speed up with each cycle
The IPCC uses the rating scale to communicate its level of confidence in each event in their climate change models. Through statistical and other methods, each type of data analysis can be given a particular confidence level
3D pattern of ocean circulation driven by heat, wind and salinity
North Atlantic to South Pacific oceans
A long cylinder of ice obtained by drilling a hole in a glacier that tells us climates from
1000 years ago
Chemical Reactions and Chemiluminescence:
A chemical reaction is a process in which substances interact, causing the formation of new substances (A rearrangement of atoms).
One piece of evidence of a chemical reaction is that light may be produced and a change in energy/heat will occur.
Chemiluminescence is light produced by a chemical reaction with little or no heat produced: “cold light” (glow sticks).
Proxy Records and Protons/Neutrons:
Ice cores (a type of proxy record) give information about previous climates. The ice composition gives an isotope analysis. An isotope is any of 2 or more forms of a chemical element having the same number of protons in the nucleus, or atomic number, but having a different number of neutrons in the nucleus, or atomic weight. Each isotope gives information about global temperature during the time of the ice formation.
Neutralization and the Digestive System
Neutralization: The reaction of an acid and a base to form a salt and water
The pits in the lining of your stomach secrete HCI. Excess acid production causes a burning sensation. Antacids contain Mg(OH)2 and neutralize stomach acid.
2HCI(aq) + Mg(OH)2(aq) → 2H2O(l) + MgCl2(aq)
pH Scale and Ocean Acidification:
The pH Scale tells us whether the solution is an acid, base or neither and is based on the concentration of hydrogen ions in the solution.
Acids: 0-6 Neutral: 7 Base: 8-14
Surface ocean ph has dropped from 8.2 and become acidic because oceans dissolve more CO2 from atmosphere. This causes carbonic acid (H2CO2) to form in oceans lowering pH and destroying coral.
Heat Transfer and Electromagnetic Radiation:
Electromagnetic radiation is a part of the wave model of light. It is a wave that has both electric and magnetic parts (doesn’t require a medium and travels at the speed of light).
During the day, the sun radiates light and heat in the form of electromagnetic radiation. We can think of the sun's radiation (or insolation) as a stream of radiation which contains energy that can be converted to heat when it strikes the Earth's surface.
Hydrosphere and Integumentary System:
When water evaporates, energy is absorbed which causes a cooling effect in the hydrosphere.
When the body is hot the skin turns red because blood vessels in circulatory system dilate so excess heat can be released into the environment. The sweat leaves your skin through tiny holes called pores. When the sweat hits the air, the air makes it evaporate. As the sweat evaporates off your skin, you cool down.