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What do audience members attempt to get out of their media use? Rubin's typology lists eight motivations people provide to explain why they watch: Passing time, Companionship, Escape, Enjoyment, Social Interaction, Relaxation, Information, Excitement.
The media don’t tell the public what to think, but rather what to think about.
Media sets the terms of public discourse.
But can media determine what people will care about?
Albert Bandura—We are able to learn by observing others and the consequences they face.
Surveillance of the environment
Correlation of different elements of society
Transmission of culture from one generation to the next
Entertainment
Spiral of Silence
Media Logic
Cultivation Analysis
Functional Analysis
Agenda Setting
Uses and Gratifications
Social Learning
Steps of Social Learning
We extract key information from situations we observe.
We integrate these observations to create rules about how the world operates.
We put these rules into practice to regulate our own behavior and predict the behavior of others.
George Herbert Mead and Herbert Blumer
Audience members seek out and respond to media for a variety of reasons.
People can be segmented by geographics, demographics, or psychographics.
Looks at audience members as selective consumers rather than naïve victims of the media.
theorized that socialization through language allows us to create meaning and thereby understand one another. This is know as symbolic interactionism.
The mass media is the biggest source of shared meanings in our lives (Truth One).
How does ownership affect the media?
Do we get different messages from different owners?
How important are the six largest media companies?
People want to see themselves as part of a majority.
They will remain silent if they perceive themselves as being in a minority.
This tends to make minority opinions appear less prevalent than they are.
But some people like having contrary opinions; others speak out because they care.
Possible gratifications
To be amused
To experience the beautiful
To have shared experiences with others
To find models to imitate
To believe in romantic love
How does the medium used change the nature of the message and the receiver’s response to the message?
What are the social effects of each medium?
“The medium is the message”—Marshall McLuhan
The forms the media use to present the world become the forms we use to perceive the world.
People use media formats to describe the world.
People use media formats to prepare for events so that they will be portrayed better through the media.
Watching significant amounts of television alters the way an individual views the nature of the surrounding world.
Can cultivate a response known as the “Mean World Syndrome.”
Behavioral Effects Inducing people to adopt new behaviors or change existing ones. Much harder than changing attitudes.
Psychological Effects Inspiring strong feelings or arousal in audience members. People often seek feelings such as fear, joy, revulsion, happiness, or amusement.
Heavy television viewers are more likely to:
Overestimate chance of experiencing violence
Believe their neighborhood is unsafe
Say fear of crime is a serious personal problem
Assume the crime rate is rising.
How are people affected by the content of messages?
Cognitive Effects Short-term learning of information.
Attitudinal Effects Changing people’s attitudes about a person, product, institution, or idea.
Resonance Model A candidate’s success depends on how well his or her basic message resonates with and reinforces voters’ preexisting political feelings.
Competitive Model Views the political campaign as a competition for the hearts and minds of voters. A candidate’s response to an attack is as important as the attack itself.
Message Effects
Medium Effects
Ownership Effects
Active Audience Effects
News with an explicit point of view is popular on cable television.
Audience members tend to view news as biased if it does not actively match their own point of view.
Focus is on how people use media to construct view of the world; not effect of media on people’s behavior.
Examines creation of meaning and how communication takes place; not survey or experimental results.
Who controls the creation and flow of information?
Voters with strong opinions are unlikely to change them.
Voters who pay most attention to campaigns are those who start with strongest views.
The most persuadable voters are least likely to pay attention to campaigns.
Conservatives point out reporters tend to be more liberal than public at large. “The duty of the press is to comfort the afflicted and afflict the comfortable.”
Liberals point out that media are owned by large corporations that tend to be more conservative than the public at large. “Freedom of the press belongs to those who own a press.”
Lazarsfeld study of voter decision making in 1940 presidential election.
Found importance of opinion leaders (friends and neighbors) over mass media and campaigns.
Media content and campaigns had indirect effects; interpersonal influence was stronger.
Ethnocentrism The belief that your own country and culture are better than all others.
Altruistic democracy The idea that politicians should serve the public good, not their own interests.
Responsible capitalism The idea that open competition among businesses will create a better, more prosperous world. But must be responsible.
Small-town pastoralism Nostalgia for the old-fashioned rural community.
People feared strong, direct effects of World War I and World War II propaganda.
Direct effects—presume media messages are a stimulus that leads to consistent, predictable attitudinal or behavioral effects.
Indirect effects—recognize that people have different backgrounds, needs, values and so respond differently.
Individualism The quest to identify the one person who makes a difference.
Moderatism The value of moderation in all things. Extremists on left and right are viewed with suspicion.
Pre 1800s: People in the United States lived in rural communities with people of similar ethnic, racial, and religious backgrounds.
1800s: Industrial revolution – People move into cities, work for wages, interact with people of diverse backgrounds.
Fears: Media would replace church, family, and community in shaping public opinion.