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Topic 2
Atomic structure
2.1 The atom
Relative charges of the subatomic particles should be known.
Atomic number (z) is the number of protons and electrons given that it is at it's neutral state.
Mass number is the number of protons and neutrons.
Neutrons never change in IB chemistry.
Isotopes of an element,
Radio Isotopes such as C14 in carbon dating and Co60 in radiotherapy is two things you should at least know.
2.3 Electron Arrangement
2.2 Mass Spectrometer
Line spectrum shows discretely colored lines at the specific energy level where an electron moved from one shell to another.
Continuous spectrum is a continuous spectrum of the visible spectrum, showing all the energy wavelengths which the substance absorbs.
The five steps of the mass spectrometer should be revised.
Topic 3
Periodicity
Chemical Properties
3.1 The periodic table
Contrast elements with their chemical properties.
Must known:
-Alkali metals with water
-Alkali metals with halogens
-Halogens with Halide ions (redox)
Talk about the nature of acidity across period 3.
3.2 Physical properties
Define the term first ionization energy
(Energy required to remove one mole of electrons from one mole of substance in a gaseous state)
Able to use trends to predict ionization energy, electronegative melting points for period 3 only.
compare electronegative values.
Should become familiar with the electron arrangements, how the periodic table is formulated.
Group is vertical
Period is horizontal
Electron arrangement up to 20
General Remarks
Bonding
Topic 4
Shapes
Covalent Bonding
Intermolecular Force (forces between molecules)
Ionic Bonding
VSEPER THEORY
Rough numbers such as 109 degrees can be used rather than 109.5 since IB tends to ask for a range of numbers.
A form of bonding involving the sharing of valance shell electrons in order to reach a inert gas state.
Revise Dative Bonds.
Bond Length and Strength
Bond Polarity
As opposed to intramolecular forces
Molecular polarity is when the electronegative doesn't cancel out.
Van Der Waals
Dipole:Dipole
Hydrogen FON
Bonding or Electrostatic attraction between cations and anions in an lattice structure where each ion is surrounded by six oppositely charged ions.
Exists because atoms want to achieve noble gas configurations as it is the most stable.
Need to memorize common ions.
Usually, anything with a electronegative greater than 1.8 is considered ionic.
Metallic Bonding
Giant Covalent
A special type of covalent bonding.
Bonding between positive ions and a sea of free moving electrons.
Apart from knowing the properties of each bonding type, their general chemical properties should be studied as well.
Mole concept
The mole unit is a number used to measure the amount of atoms in a specific substance.
The number is 6.02 times 10 to the power of 32.
The number can be considered as a unit, such as a dozen.
The mass of mole of a substance is known as the molar mass
Mass and gaseous volumes
Formulas
Theoretical yield is the predicted yield of of substances of the equation, any differentiation from this number could be expanded upon.
Ideal Gas laws and molar volume (22.4 dm3 mol-1) should be revised.
The idea of limiting reactants problems involving theoretical, experimental and percentage yield should be revised as well
Relative Atomic mass is the weighted mean of all the relative isotopic masses of an element relative to carbon-12.
Empirical formula is the smallest possible ratio of the elements which makes up a molecule, while Molecular formula is the actual number of elements which make up a molecule.
You are expected to use this information to solve problems.
solutions
Remember gaseous chemical equations are often all ideal gases, hence the volume of the gas should be use as the representation of the moles.
solute= The thing being dissolved
solvent= The thing that does the dissolving
solution=a liquid product with those two things above
n=cv
Topic 1
Quantitative
Chemistry
Organic Chemistry
Energetics
Bond Enthalpies
Revise Hess Law
Bond enthalpy is the endothermic side (reactants) minus the exothermic side (products)
Limitations of using bond enthalpies is that everything has to be a gas
The bond enthalpies supplied are average enthalpies, and therefore results may vary.
Limitations of using the qmcdelta t.
C is the heat capacity of water or x only.
Does not take into account of heat lost to the environment.
Enthalpy
Exothermic reactions are were energy is being lost to the environment and bonds are formed.
Endothermic reactions are where energy is being absorbed and bonds are lost.
Ways to measure change in heat
Calorimetry
Use Q=mc(change in t)
Graph will need to be extrapolated.
Remember the m is the mass of the thing you're heating.
result/moles of reactant gives the heat energy per mole.
Proprieties
Functional Groups
General remarks
Organic chemistry is mostly memorizing stuff.
1. spot longest carbon chain
2. The type of bonding
3.Functional groups
4.numbers show where the functional groups are.
Increase chain length:
Boiling Point - Increases at a lesser rate
Melting Point- Increases at a lesser rate
Solubility in water decreases
Remember benzene is a ring with 6 carbons
Reactions:
Functional Groups
Alcohols and halogenoalkanes are stated by their orientation on the atom.
Ie
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
Mind Map
Redox
Redox equations
1. start with oxygen or Hydrogen, define their oxidation numbers.
2. Balance both sides of the equations
Combine the equations, get rid of electrons.
Redox only occurs when a oxidation number changes.
Oxidation and Reduction
Easy stuff:
Oxidation numbers
Definition of oxidation and reduation
Reducing agent (oxidant) and Oxidating agent (reduction)
Cells
Electrolytic Cell
Not spontaneous.
Anode is pos
Cathode is neg
Electrical energy is converted into chemical energy.
Electrolytes are substances which do not conduct electricity while solid but do in molten or in an aqueous solution.
Voltaic cells.
-Anode is neg
-Cathode is pos
-Salt bridge to allow the flow of ions (complete the circuit.
-Connected by an external wire
-Exothermic and produces electricity
-A half cell is simply a metal in contact with it's own ions.
Reactivity
The more readily a metal looses it's outer shell electrons, the more readily it to undergo oxidation.
Higher reactive metals can displace weaker metals in their solution.
Standard conditions revise.
Kinetics
Factors
Temperature
Surface Area
Concentration
Catalyst- Remember, only effect rate of reaction
Rates of reaction
Can be measured by any property that differs during an reaction.
Maxwell Boltzmann Theory
Collision theory
-Particles must collide
-Collide with the right geometry
-Sufficient Activation Complex
Activation energy is the minimal energy required for substances to undergo an reaction.
Can be measured by finding the gradient of the curve at given points.
Acids and Bases
Bronstead Lowry acid and bases and Lewis Acid and Bases.
Properties of acid and bases
BL acid donates protons, BL base accepts protons.
L acid accepts electrons, L base donates electrons.
Memorize acid base chart ?
Indicators, are weak acids are bases which changes color when reacted.
Memorize indicators and their effects.
Reactions memorize
1. Neutralization
Forms salt and water with oh
With metal oxides form salt and water
ammonia to form a salt
2. With reactive metals
Salt and hydrogen
3. With carbonates
salt carbon dioixde and water
4. With hydrogen carbonates.
salt co2 and water
Experiments to determine strong and weak acids and bases
Electricity and indicators
PH scale
Power of hydrogen concentration, get's smaller as ph increases.
Memorize the properties of strong acids and bases.
Very weak bases can be considered a acid and vice versa.
Equilibrium
Factors effecting the equilibrium constant.
Concentration
-Both sides needs to have a stable ratio of molecules
Pressure
-Depends on which side has more moles
(moves to the side with the less volume.)
Temperature
-Exothermic, considered as a product, kc decreases as temperature increases.
-Endothermic, considered as a reactant
Le Chatelier's
When a system at equilibrium is disturbed, the system will partially compensate for the change. So to minimize it's effects.
Dynamic equilibrium
Characteristics of chemicals at equilibrium
Most chemicals do not go to to completion. Hence it's likely that there is a forward and reverse reaction.
Dynamic equilibrium is when the forward and reverse reactions continue to occur,but at equilibrium the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse reaction.
This occurs in a closed system only
Kc=Products/Reactants.
Coefficients in front of chemicals become exponents.
When Kc is bigger than 1 the reaction almost reaches completion.
When Kc is smaller, the reaction barely proceeds.