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Unit 14 : Social Psychology

Social Relations

Module 80: Altruism, Conflict, and Peacemaking

Social Relations

Enemy Perceptions

Conflict is perceived as an incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas.

People in conflict form diabolical images of one another. These distorted images are so similar that we call them mirror-image perceptions.

Key Terms

  • Altruism
  • Bystander Effect
  • Social Exchange Theory
  • Reciprocity Norm
  • Social Responsibility Norm
  • Conflict
  • Social Trap
  • Mirror-image Perceptions
  • Self-fulfilling Prophecy
  • Subordinate Goals
  • GRIT

A social trap is a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior.

Because people perceive and react to these mirror-image perceptions, they may lead to self-fulfilling prophecies

Module 78: Aggression

A Game of Social Trap

Genetic Influences: Animals have been bred for aggressiveness for sport and at times for research. Twin studies show aggression may be genetic. In men, aggression is possibly linked to the Y chromosome.

By pursuing our self-interest and not trusting others, we can end up losers.

Neural Influences: Some centers in the brain, especially the limbic system (amygdala) and the frontal lobe, are intimately involved with aggression.

Genetic Influences

Neural Influences

Biochemical Influences

Key Terms

  • Aggression
  • Frustration-aggression Principle
  • Social Script

Three biological influences on aggressive behavior are:

Biochemical Influences: Animals with diminished amounts of testosterone (castration) become docile, and if injected with testosterone aggression increases. Prenatal exposure to testosterone also increases aggression in female hyenas.

The Biology of Aggression

AP PSYCHOLOGY

Social Relations

Module 77: Prejudice and Discrimination

The general consensus on violent video games is that, to some extent, they breed violence. Adolescents view the world as hostile when they get into arguments and receive bad grades after playing such games.

Do Video Games Teach or Release Violence?

Four psychological factors that influence aggressive behavior are:

The Psychology and Social-Cultural

Factors of Aggression

Dealing with aversive events

Learning aggression is rewarding

Observing models of aggression

Acquiring social scripts

Simply called “prejudgment,” a prejudice is an unjustifiable (usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members. Prejudice is often directed towards different cultural, ethnic, or gender groups.

Key Terms

Components of Prejudices:

  • Beliefs (stereotypes)
  • Emotions (hostility, envy, fear)
  • Predisposition to act (to discriminate)

Racial and Gender Prejudice

Aggression can be any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy. It may be done reactively out of hostility or proactively as a calculated means to an end.

  • Prejudice
  • Stereotype
  • Discrimination
  • Just-world Phenomenon
  • Ingroup
  • Outgroup
  • Ingroup Bias
  • Scapegoat Theory
  • Other-race Effect

How Prejudiced are People?

Reign of Prejudice

Prejudice works at the conscious and [more at] the unconscious level. Therefore, prejudice is more like a knee-jerk response than a conscious decision.

Americans today express much less racial and gender prejudice, but prejudices still exist.

Gender

Most women still live in more poverty than men. About 100,000,000 women are missing in the world. There is a preference for male children in China and India, even with sex-selective abortion outlawed

Research shows that aggressive behavior emerges from the interaction of biology and experience.

Cognitive Roots of Prejudice

Aversive Events

One way we simplify our world is to categorize. We categorize people into groups by stereotyping them.

  • Frustration-aggression Principle - Studies in which animals and humans experience unpleasant events reveal that those made miserable often make others miserable.

Cognitive Roots of Prejudice

Other-Race Effect

The tendency of people to believe the world is just, and people get what they deserve and deserve what they get (the just-world phenomenon).

  • AKA : Own-race Bias or Cross-race Effect
  • The tendency to recall faces of one's own race more accurately than faces of other races
  • Develops in infants at 3-9 months of age

Social Roots of Prejudice

Acquiring Social Scripts

Emotional Roots of Prejudice

Why does prejudice arise?

Scapegoat Theory - Prejudice provides an outlet for anger [emotion] by providing someone to blame. After 9/11 many people lashed out against innocent Arab-Americans.

  • Social Inequalities
  • Social Divisions
  • Emotional Scapegoating

Environment

The media portrays social scripts and generates mental tapes in the minds of the viewers. When confronted with new situations individuals may rely on such social scripts. If social scripts are violent in nature, people may act them out.

Learning that Aggression is Rewarding

Even environmental temperature can lead to aggressive acts. Murders and rapes increased with the temperature in Houston.

When aggression leads to desired outcomes, one learns to be aggressive. This is shown in both animals and humans.

In and Out Groups

Social Inequality

Ingroup: People with whom one shares a common identity. Outgroup: Those perceived as different from one’s ingroup. Ingroup Bias: The tendency to favor one’s own group.

Cultures that favor violence breed violence. Scotch-Irish settlers in the South had more violent tendencies than their Quaker Dutch counterparts in the Northeast of the US.

Prejudice develops when people have money, power, and prestige, and others do not. Social inequality increases prejudice.

Observing Models of Aggression

Sexually coercive men are promiscuous and hostile in their relationships with women. This coerciveness has increased due to television viewing of R- and X-rated movies.

Social Thinking

Social Influence

Attitudes and Action

Module 75: Conformity and Obedience

Key Terms

  • Chameleon Effect
  • Conformity
  • Normative Social Influence
  • Informational Social Influence

Attitude

Behavior is contagious, modeled by one followed by another. We follow behavior of others to conform.

Other behaviors may be an expression of compliance (obedience) toward authority.

If we believe a person is mean, we may feel dislike for the person and act in an unfriendly manner.

Why do actions affect attitudes?

The Chameleon Effect

Group Pressure & Conformity

Conformity: Adjusting one’s behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard (Chartrand & Bargh, 1999).

Suggestibility is a subtle type of conformity, adjusting our behavior or thinking toward some group standard.

A belief and feeling that predisposes a person to respond in a particular way to objects, other people, and events.

Tested by Solomon Asch in 1955

Zimbardo (1972) assigned the roles of guards and prisoners to random students and found that guards and prisoners developed role- appropriate attitudes.

Conditions that Strengthen Conformity

One explanation is that when our attitudes and actions are opposed, we experience tension. This is called cognitive dissonance.

  • One is made to feel incompetent or insecure.
  • The group has at least three people.
  • The group is unanimous.
  • One admires the group’s status and attractiveness.
  • One has no prior commitment or response.
  • The group observes one’s behavior.
  • One’s culture strongly encourages respect for a social standard.

Reasons for Conformity

Informative Social Influence

Normative Social Influence: Influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid rejection. A person may respect normative behavior because there may be a severe price to pay if not respected.

Baron and colleagues (1996) made students do an eyewitness identification task. If the task was easy (lineup exposure 5 sec.), conformity was low in comparison to a difficult (1/2 sec. exposure) task.

Informative Social Influence: The group may provide valuable information, but stubborn people will never listen to others.

To relieve ourselves of this tension we bring our attitudes closer to our actions (Festinger, 1957).

Role Playing Affects Attitudes

Obedience

People comply to social pressures. How would they respond to outright command?

Stanley Milgram designed a study that investigates the effects of authority on obedience.

Some Assumptions

Lessons from the Conformity and Obedience Studies

In both Asch's and Milgram's studies, participants were pressured to follow their standards and be responsive to others.

  • That we are sensitive to discrepancies between our actions and beliefs
  • That these discrepancies cause dissonance that motivates us to find a resolution
  • That we will resolve this dissonance in one of three ways
  • Changing our belief
  • Changing our action
  • Changing our perception of the action

In Milgram’s study, participants were torn between hearing the victims pleas and the experimenter’s orders.

Routes to Persuasion

  • Peripheral Route Persuasion
  • Occurs when people are persuaded or influenced by incidental cues and make snap judgments
  • attractiveness
  • esteem
  • celebrity
  • Central Route Persuasion
  • People are interested in the quality of the argument.
  • evidence
  • facts
  • statistics

Attitudes Can Affect Action

Our attitudes predict our behaviors imperfectly because other factors, including the external situation, also influence behavior.

In the Korean War, Chinese communists solicited cooperation from US army prisoners by asking them to carry out small errands. By complying to small errands they were likely to comply to larger ones.

Small Request – Large Request

Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon: The tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request.

The Looking Glass Effect

  • When we are made aware of our attitudes, they are more likely to influence our actions
  • Diener and Wallborn - Researched this in college students
  • though all agreed cheating was wrong, students performing an "IQ" test of anagrams 71% cheated by working past the bell that signaled the end of the test
  • in rooms where subjects worked in front of a mirror the number of cheaters was only 7%

Not only do people stand for what they believe in (attitude), they start believing in what they stand for.

Action

Attitude

Social Relations

Social Thinking

Attributions of Behavior to Persons or Situations

Module 74: Attribution, Attitudes, and Actions

Key Terms

Social thinking involves thinking about others, especially when they engage in doing things that are unexpected.

Attributing Behavior to Persons or to Situations

A teacher may wonder whether a child’s hostility reflects an aggressive personality (dispositional attribution) or is a reaction to stress or abuse (a situational attribution).

Attribution Theory: Fritz Heider (1958) suggested that we have a tendency to give causal explanations for someone’s behavior, often by crediting either the situation or the person’s disposition.

  • Social Psychology
  • Attribution Theory
  • Fundamental Attribution Error
  • Attitude
  • Peripheral Route Persuation
  • Central Route Persuation
  • Foot-in-the-door Phenomenom
  • Role
  • Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Note: this box is spelled incorrectly- it should be "Dispositional Attribution"

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to overestimate the impact of personal disposition and underestimate the impact of the situations in analyzing the behaviors of others leads to the fundamental attribution error.

Promoting Peace

Social Psychology scientifically studies how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

Social Influence

Module 76: Group Behavior

Individual Behavior in the Presence of Others

Social Loafing

The tendency of an individual in a group to exert less effort toward attaining a common goal than when tested individually (Latané, 1981).

Social facilitation: Refers to improved performance on tasks in the presence of others. Triplett (1898) noticed cyclists’ race times were faster when they competed against others than when they just raced against the clock

Key Terms

Deindividuation

Power of Individuals

  • Social Facilitation
  • Social Loafing
  • Deindividuation
  • Group Polarization
  • Groupthink
  • Culture
  • Norm

The loss of self-awareness and self-restraint in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity.

The power of social influence is enormous, but so is the power of the individual.

Non-violent fasts and appeals by Gandhi led to the independence of India from the British.

Peacemaking

Effects of Group Interaction

Group Polarization enhances a group’s prevailing attitudes through a discussion. If a group is like-minded, discussion strengthens its prevailing opinions and attitudes.

Groupthink

Cultural Influences

  • Culture influences our behavior, beliefs and values through social norms which vary from culture to culture
  • Culture evolves over time

A mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides the realistic appraisal of alternatives.

Superordinate goals are shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation.

Graduated & Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction (GRIT): This is a strategy designed to decrease international tensions. One side recognizes mutual interests and initiates a small conciliatory act that opens the door for reciprocation by the other party.

Communication and understanding developed through talking to one another. Sometimes it is mediated by a third party.

Social Relations

Module 79: Attraction

Key Terms

Altruism- unselfish regard for the welfare of others

  • Mere Exposure Effect
  • Passionate Love
  • Companionate Love
  • Equity
  • Self-disclosure

Psychology of Attraction

Bystander Intervention

The Norms for Helping

Bystander Effect

The decision-making process for bystander intervention.

Proximity: Geographic nearness is a powerful predictor of friendship. Repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases their attraction (mere exposure effect).

Social Exchange Theory: Our social behavior is an exchange process. The aim is to maximize benefits and minimize costs.

  • Companionate Love: A deep, affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined.
  • Equity: Both partners get from a relationship in proportion to what they put in.
  • Self-disclosure: Revealing intimate details about ourselves to another

Physical Attractiveness: Once proximity affords contact, the next most important thing in attraction is physical appearance.

Tendency of any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present.

  • Reciprocity Norm: The expectation that we should return help and not harm those who have helped us.
  • Social–Responsibility Norm: Largely learned, it is a norm that tells us to help others when they need us even though they may not repay us.

Similarity: Similar views among individuals causes the bond of attraction to strengthen.

Romantic Love

Passionate Love: An aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship.

Two-factor theory of emotion

  • Physical arousal plus cognitive appraisal
  • Arousal from any source can enhance one emotion depending upon what we interpret or label the arousal

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