Napoleonic Battle Strategy and Tactics

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Napoleonic Military Strategy and Tactics

By Samuel Salander

Formations and Morale

. Napoleon used a variety of formations to organize his troops, whose morale he kept high at all costs.

. He based much of these on Ancien Régime leaders' formations, based on abandoning marching in rows for columns and squares/rectangles.

. He regularly sent bands of line-shaped formations behind enemy lines to cut off supplies and communications before a battle began.

. He also occasionally arranged a V-formation, placing his weakest in the middle, luring an opponent to charge the center, after which the sides would enclose the enemy force and massacre them, as Hannibal once did.

Appointment by Merit

. Napoleon appointed men to high-ranking military positions based upon ability, which would benefit France greatly on the battlefield.

. Not only did this create a more competent officer corps, but also an attitude of self-improvement within the ranks of the army.

. This advantage played a significant role, especially in the Battle of Jena, in which the competent and experienced leaders of the French destroyed the Prussian army, which appointed by birth and were obsolete.

Ambitions

. As described earlier, Napoleon was a deeply ambitious person that was willing to sacrifice relationships for power.

. He masterfully describes this thirst for power in a quote: "I can no longer obey; I have tasted command, and cannot give it up."

. He also wrote on multiple occasions about his plans to rule the entire world, and even predicted that he would accomplish this in a few years at one point.

. Regardless of his failure to do so, he evidently looked at his life while on St. Helena as a success and an inspiration for the ages (and he wasn't wrong).

Cavalry

. In his later years of command, Napoleon utilized cavalry as its own separate unit, recognizing it as a useful tool before, during, and after a battle.

. He used cavalry for initial shock tactics, tying into his emphasis on speed, though he utilized them throughout battles for support of weaker units and to quickly flank the enemy.

. His armies often had tens of thousands of cavalry units.

. In times when he entered battles outnumbered, he often omitted the defined role of cavalry troops and assimilated them into the infantry and used their horses to draw artillery.

Austerlitz

. This was one of Napoleon's most decisive victories, and ended the War of the Third Coalition.

. Historians estimate the French force at around 70,000 men and the Allied force at 85,000.

. As the ultimate display of his superior maneuverability, he quickly withdrew from a valuable position on the battlefield.

. This tempted the Allies to flank him, weakening their center.

. When this happened, Napoleon launched a powerful strike on the center, splitting the opposing forces, who were then easily defeated.

Artillery

. Napoleon placed a great emphasis on the use of artillery, as captured in his quote, "God is on the side with the best artillery."

. The French during the Napoleonic Wars revolutionized this concept, using lighter, more mobile cannons, giving his forces the speed advantage that he was obsessed with.

. He frequently used hundreds of heavy guns in large battles.

. In his navy, anywhere from a few dozen to a hundred artillery guns wre mounted on each ship.

Contemporary Propaganda and Art

Psychological Analysis

Austerlitz (Movie): Fact and Fiction

. As a reconstructive movie, "Austerlitz" does a fair job of accurately representing the battle.

. As is to be expected, however, there are some exaggerations present, such as the rate of fire and accuracy of the muskets.

. In addition, Napoleon is portrayed as exceedingly short and narrow-minded, which simply wasn't the case.

. Napoleon had quite an interesting character.

. He was quite ambitious in both politics and warfare.

. Historians and psychologists have suspected that he suffered from narcissism and a reduced sense of fear.

. This reduced fear sense had a role on the battlefield, which prompted him to take risks and go on the offensive with little concern of failure, which perhaps served him well.

. It has also been observed that he deeply and genuinely cared for his first wife, Josephine, and gave little thought to abandoning her to pursue his dynastic ambitions.

. As an ingenius political move, Napoleon also regularly organized for the spreading of supportive propaganda in his realms.

. A prime example of this was Napoleon Crossing the Alps by Jacques-Louis David, depicting his heroic crossing of the Alps in May 1800.

. He also repeatedly asked his Chief of Police to write slanderous articles on political rivals and censor plays featuring recent political figures for fear that they might fuel political rivalries.

Infantry

. The infantry carried flintlock muskets that could be fired about once every 15 seconds and were effective between 50 and 100 yards from targets.

. They stood most commonly in lines about two or three men thick, firing in volleys.

. To prevent fleeing, soldiers wore brightly colored uniforms that would make a runaway soldier visible from far away.

. Infantry would generally encamp in natural or rural settings, seeing cities as unfit for warfare.

Waterloo (1970 Movie): Fact and Fiction

. This movie in particular accurately illustrates the character of Napoleon, using many of his quotes and depicting a man consumed with ambition and driven by will.

. Unfortunately, the ever-present misconception of his short height is still present in the film.

. In addition, generosity shown by Napoleon towards treacherous marshals wasn't completely historically accurate.

. It was particularly interesting to see Napoleon abdicate (as was necessary), an act that clearly violated all of his hopes and dreams.

Early Conflicts

Waterloo

Popular Misconceptions

Philosophy

. Defining this period as before the creation of the Napoleonic Empire in 1804, he fought 26 battles, 23 of which Napoleon won.

. In his earlier battles, he employed units of mixed cavalry and infantry, as was a common practice of the time, though he abandoned this practice for being too cumbersome.

. It has been commented that early in his career, he adopted the strategies of the ancients to an excessive degree, such as the Roman practice of extensive camp construction.

. Such practices proved inefficient in his era of improved mobility and siege weaponry.

. During the time of Napoleon, the anti-Napoleonic propaganda of the British and others has led to common misconceptions.

. For example, many today believe that Napoleon was a short man, though confusion over the French measuring system led the British to interpret Napleon's 5'2 height as literal, though it translated to 5'7 by British inches, which was significantly taller than the average British man.

. In our society, we also tend to envision Napoleon as a very commanding, near-sighted man that cared only for conquest, though he was a superb statesman and scholar as well.

. This 1815 battle was Napoleon's final defeat, beaten by the British and Prussians.

. Two days earlier, on June 16, the French had defeated and weakened the Prussian army at the Battle of Ligny.

. Perhaps Napoleon's most critical mistake was delaying his formal attack of the enemy camp until later in the day to allow the ground to dry after a rainstorm.

. This gave his enemies, led by the Duke of Wellington, time to be joined by the Prussians, who gave their combined force a numerical advantage over the French.

. Though the French launched a strong offensive on the British, they retreated, marking the end of Napoleon's career.

. On the battlefield, Napoleon rarely encamped or entrenched in one place, opting to tirelessly pursue the offensive.

. He described himself as exceedingly fearful when planning for battle, exaggerating every possible negative outcome to make prudent decisions.

. As historian Albert Nofi has noted, Napoleon rarely recorded the specifics of his battle plans.

. In general, he rejected most novel ideas and embraced more practical tactics.

. He also made a point of severing enemy supply and communication lines, suffocating the enemy and forcing them into disadvantaged battle.

Napoleon (1927 Movie)

. This movie is about the early life of Napoleon, in which he is portrayed as a heroic visionary.

. The general plot of the movie is historically accurate, though Napoleon's internal thoughts and visions are obviously fabricated to fit how director Abel Gance envisioned them to be.

. This movie reveals a lot about the struggles and lessons that Napoleon went through as a young man, which explains much about his adult personality.

Inspirations

Future Impact

. An avid student of ancient battles and warfare, Napoleon drew elements of his military strategy form the strategies of ancient generals.

. He encouraged others to do so as well, saying to "Read over and over again the campaigns of Alexander, Hannibal, Caesar, Gustavus, Turenne, Eugene and Frederick (the Great). ... This is the only way to become a great general and master the secrets of the art of war."

. In addition, he based much of his political and military philosophy on those employed by his main inspiration, Frederick the Great.

. Napoleon's ceaseless conflict and conquest, by prompting the Congress of Vienna, ironically ushered in about a century of relative peace.

. In the process, he broke the bonds of Feudalism in Western Europe, thus prompting an enormous advancement of European society.

. From his battlefield genius, to his fascinating personality, to his mysterious death, he has been the subject of much interest over the years,

. Ironically, he studied the tactics of the great men before him, as countless have studied him since.

Health and Final Failures

. Though unsure of what Napoleon's cause of death was in exile, researchers have produced theories like arsenic poisoning and stomach cancer.

. Various sources inform historians that Napoleon was showing symptoms of whatever sickness it was before being sent into exile.

. It is thus possible that his thought process and ability to command was impeded at the time of his ultimate defeat.

. Many subscribe to this theory on the grounds that he made very uncharacteristic tactical mistakes at Waterloo.

Bibliography

Intro/ Background

. "Napoleon's Strategy and Tactics." www.napolun.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Jan. 2016. <http://www.napolun.com/mirror/napoleonistyka.atspace.com/Napoleon_tactics.htm>.

. Riley, Jonathon. "How Good Was Napoleon?." www.historytoday.com. N.p., July 2007. Web. 12 Jan. 2016. <http://www.historytoday.com/jonathon-riley/how-good-was-napoleon>.

. "Battle of Austerlitz". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.

Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2016. Web. 15 Jan. 2016

<http://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Austerlitz>.

. "Battle of Waterloo". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.

Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2016. Web. 15 Jan. 2016

<http://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Waterloo>.

. Bonaparte, Napoleon. "The Military Maxims of Napoleon." www.military-info.com. N.p., 1902. Web. 14 Jan. 2016. <http://www.military-info.com/freebies/maximsn.htm>.

.Burbeck, James. "Napoleonic Artillery: Firepower Comes of Age." www.wtj.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Jan. 2016. <http://www.wtj.com/articles/napart/>.

. Jones, Alfred. "Psychological Observations of Napoleon Bonaparte." www.historicmysteries.com. N.p., Feb. 2011. Web. 13 Jan. 2016. <http://www.historicmysteries.com/psychological-observations-of-napoleon-bonaparte/>.

. Betros, Gemma. "Napoleon the Man." www.historicmysteries.com. N.p., Mar. 2012. Web. 17 Jan. 2016. <http://www.historytoday.com/gemma-betros/napoleon-man>.

. Steiger, Rob, perf. Waterloo. 1970. Web. 17 Jan. 2016. <

. Dieudonné, Albert, perf. Napoléon. 2012. 1927. Web. 17 Jan. 2016.

. Mondy, Pierre, perf. Austerlitz. 1960. Web. 17 Jan. 2016. <

. In the early- 19th century, Napoleon Bonaparte forged a mighty French Empire through military conquest.

. Ironically not even of French descent, he used his political skill and strategic genius to raise great armies, silence his rivals, and defeat nearby powers to extend his lands under the title of "Emperor of the French".

. Though he was ultimately defeated by a united front of his rivals, he earned his reputation as one of the greatest military leaders to ever live.