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REFERENCES
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Your Musical Brain in Action:
Neural network pathways are dedicated to each of the thousands of tasks your brain accomplishes everyday.
Repeated use of a neural network makes it larger, stronger, faster, and more efficient at transmitting electrochemical signals from neuron to neuron along synaptic pathways.
The more efficiently our brain uses its resources to do a task, the more effectively our brain accomplishes that task (quickly, accurately, or consistently).
Musical activities utilize more widespread areas of the brain than any other human activity that has been measured with imaging technology!
“If our brains were simple enough for us to understand them, we'd be so simple that we couldn't.”
- Ian Stewart (1995)
Some suggesstions for the future...
Quick Brain Facts
Neat stuff, but how do I use this information to help myself or my students?
Even after reviewing a LOT of research...
1. Listening &
Audiation
Three Modes of Musical Processes:
2. Reproductive
Performance
3. Productive
Performance
What are the implications of neuromusical research for how we learn to be musical?
McMullen: Musical Acceptance-Rejection Model
Aesthetic Enjoyment
Emotional Expression
Music expresses our deepest emotions in ineffable ways
"Music for music's sake." That which we find beautiful in music is a purpose to be musical.
Entertainment
Music is a vehicle to entertain and amuse us.
Non-musically trained subjects elicit consistent expectancy violation brain responses to deviant musical stimuli.
In other words, even people who've never had a music lesson in their life can tell that a deceptive cadence is a surprise (musical semantics) or that the last note of a scale should sound like tonic (musical syntax).
Universal Awareness of Musical Syntax and Semantics
Music can convey cognitive ideas
as well as feelings.
Physical Response
Musical experiences can elicit a physical response via audiomotor neural networks in our brain.
Enforcing Conformity to
Social Norms
Music guides cultures to develop awareness for
expected behaviors, mores, and memes.
Merriam's Functions of Human Musicality
Communication & Symbolic Representation
The elements of music can specifically
symbolize the elements of life.
Preferred music listening elicits emotional responses to reward and pleasure centers of the brain in musically and non-musically trained people (Blood & Zatorre, 2001; Koelsch et al., 2006)
Consistent emotional system responses to consonant and dissonant music among neonates (Perani et al., 2010). Infants and young children show preference for consonance over dissonance (Zentner & Kagan, 1996; Trainor et al., 2002).
Emotional Responses to the music we like:
Validation of
Social Institutions & Religious Rituals
Music can attribute positivity and validity to the institutions, organizations, and phenomena it is associated with.
Facilitating Social Interaction
Music encourages harmonious social behavior between groups and individuals.
Continuity and Stability of Culture
Music is a means of passing on cultural values and heritage (ethnic or group identity). Music provides a productive, stabilizing force for challenging experiences.
Listening, Reproductive, and Productive Musical Abilities In All Humans:
The Elements of Music
Timbre Identification: Infants can recognize their mother's voice within hours of birth, (DeCasper & Fifer, 1980; Beauchemin et al., 2011) and musical timbres within the first week (O'Connell, 2003)
Rhythm pattern identification in 6-12 month olds (Hannon & Trehub, 2005)
Pitch Discrimination: Infants can detect small melodic pitch changes that even adults don't notice (Trainor & Trehub, 1992; Trehub et al., 1999)
Creative behaviors (e.g., spontaneous song generation) are displayed in two to four year-olds (Campbell & Scott-Kassner, 2006; Siu-Lan Tan, 2010)
Inherent Musical Abilities at Birth: Musical behaviors displayed by infants are due to inherent abilities rather than learned skills (Imberty, 2000; Trehub, 2000; Perani et al, 2011)
Universal Musical Abilities for Humans: Responses to musical stimuli and musical activities among babies, children, and adults around the world suggest that basic musical processes may be universal to all humans (Trehub, S., 2000; Hodges, D. 2000; Zatorre, 2005; Perani et al, 2011,) and that infants experience music in a culture-general manner (Trehub et al., 1999).
Improvisation tasks deactivated brain regions associated with:
The Origins of Music?
Some neuromusical substrates...
Limb & Braun (2008) identified that self-generated musical performance (i.e., productive musical actions like improvisation) are distinctly different than performing memorized or written music.
Although different than performing from memory or while reading music, improvisation brain activity appears to be very similar to other states of altered consciousness (e.g., REM sleep, meditation)
Improvisation tasks activated brain regions associated with:
Pitch Discrimination:
Right auditory cortex (Seung et al., 2005; Schneider et al., 2005)
Rhythm pattern discrimination and beat awareness:
Left cerebral hemisphere (Schneider et al., 2005; Grahn & McAuley, 2009; Di Pietro et al., 2004)
Rhythmic movement (e.g., foot tapping, dancing) and fine-motor skills:
Cerebellum, (Bengtsson, & Ullen, 2006; Brown, Martinez, and Parsons, 2006)
Meter discrimination:
Right cerebral hemisphere (Liegeois-Chauvel et al. 1998, Penhune et al. 1999)
Richard Edwards, Ph.D.
Ohio Wesleyan University
rdedward@owu.edu
Inherent Morphology and Brain Structure
for Musical Processes
Similar brain structures for music: No significant differences in musical brain morphology or markers for musical proficiency were detected in 5 year-olds before beginning in musical training (Norton et al., 2005).
Widespread neuromusical brain activity: Neural activity associated with musical processes has been identified throughout the entire brain (Mazziota, 1988; Parsons & Fox, 1997; Platel et al., 1997; Parsons, 2000; Parsons, 2001; Satoh et al., 2003; Bunzeck et al., 2005; Parsons et al., 2005)
Some more neuromusical substrates...
"Muscle memory" and motor functions:
Planning, judgment, creative decisions, working memory:
Emotional responses to music activate pleasure and reward areas of the brain:
Why are neuroscientists so interested in musical processes?
Why would so many experts from multiple areas of research all endorse the idea that basic musical ability is universal to all humans?
Neuroscience (Sacks, 2007; Peretz; 2007)
Psychology (Gardner, 1999)
Archeology (Mithen, 2005)
Anthropology (Merriam, 1964)
Ethnomusicology (Blacking, 1973)
Music education (Hodges, 2005)
What is a basic music process?
The purposes of this presentation:
Musical processes change the structure and
functionality of the brain
Does music make me smarter?
Does music expertise affect non-musical tasks?
Pruning, Plasticity and Myelination
(Berk, 2004; Johnson, 2001)
A composite image combining the average neural development of the brains from many subjects (Illustration courtesy of Gogtay et al., 2004)
"Musicians appear to recruit more neural tissue or to use it more efficiently than do nonmusicians"
- Isabelle Peretz and Robert Zatorre
/
"one cheek playing"
1. Listening & Audiation:
Understanding heightened by the focused awareness, analysis, and appreciation of music.
When a middle school choir director uses modeling to demonstrate how to improve her students' singing technique, she is engaging their mirror neuron system.
2. Reproductive Performance:
Performing musical ideas that were originally created by someone else.
3. Productive Performance:
Creating and performing original musical ideas
Gabriella Montero improvises on a traditional tune (new to her) at a live concert in Koln, Germany.
Musical speech sounds strengthen social bonds between parent & child ("motherese")
- Fernald & Simon, 1984
- Konner, 1987
Music facilitates cooperative
social groups
- Hagen & Bryant, 2003
Music conveys prosperity and creativity to potential mates. - Darwin, 1871
"auditory cheesecake"
- Pinker, 1997
Music may elicit existential and spiritual validation to thrive or persevere
Music may have been a precursor to language development
- Roederer, 1982
- Mithen, 2007