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REFERENCES

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Your Musical Brain in Action:

Neural network pathways are dedicated to each of the thousands of tasks your brain accomplishes everyday.

Repeated use of a neural network makes it larger, stronger, faster, and more efficient at transmitting electrochemical signals from neuron to neuron along synaptic pathways.

The more efficiently our brain uses its resources to do a task, the more effectively our brain accomplishes that task (quickly, accurately, or consistently).

Musical activities utilize more widespread areas of the brain than any other human activity that has been measured with imaging technology!

“If our brains were simple enough for us to understand them, we'd be so simple that we couldn't.”

- Ian Stewart (1995)

Some suggesstions for the future...

Quick Brain Facts

  • 3 pounds
  • Unfolded, cerebral cortex = 6 square feet
  • Approximately 100 billion neurons
  • 40 Quadrillion (40,000,000,000,000,000) potential neural connections (synapses)

Neat stuff, but how do I use this information to help myself or my students?

  • There are three very different ways for our brains to engage in music processes. For the most fulfilling and beneficial music learning experiences, try to incorporate a balanced approach in the modes of musical processing: Listening, Reproductive, and Productive.
  • Neuroscience insights for our K-12 students: "Just like the rest of your body, your brain is still growing." (Blackwell et al., 2007)

Even after reviewing a LOT of research...

  • What's the most important reason to be musical?

...while challenging other aspects of traditional music education.

  • Does music really make me smarter? Well, sort of...
  • Verbal memory (Ho et al., 2003)
  • Math skills (Vaughn, 2000)
  • Reading skills (Butzlaff, 2000)
  • Empathy (Rabinowitch, 2012)
  • Speech discrimination (Krause, 2011)
  • Audiation and musical imagery
  • Imagined music is a similar brain process to performing music
  • How do we find the beat? (Grahn & McAuley, 2009)
  • The Legend of Tone Deafness? Or a lack of tonal nurture? (Ben Zander's TED Talk, 2008)

  • The difference between reproductive and productive musical performance (Limb, 2008)

1. Listening &

Audiation

Three Modes of Musical Processes:

2. Reproductive

Performance

The more we approach musicianship as a holistic experience based on all modes of musical action, the more enjoyable, fulfilling, and meaningful our musical experiences become.

3. Productive

Performance

Implications of Neuromusical Research:

Music is Natural. Music is Nurtured.

What are the implications of neuromusical research for how we learn to be musical?

McMullen: Musical Acceptance-Rejection Model

Aesthetic Enjoyment

Emotional Expression

Music expresses our deepest emotions in ineffable ways

"Music for music's sake." That which we find beautiful in music is a purpose to be musical.

Entertainment

Music is a vehicle to entertain and amuse us.

Non-musically trained subjects elicit consistent expectancy violation brain responses to deviant musical stimuli.

In other words, even people who've never had a music lesson in their life can tell that a deceptive cadence is a surprise (musical semantics) or that the last note of a scale should sound like tonic (musical syntax).

Universal Awareness of Musical Syntax and Semantics

Music is Natural:

The Case for Universal and Ubiquitous Human Musicality

Music can convey cognitive ideas

as well as feelings.

Physical Response

Musical experiences can elicit a physical response via audiomotor neural networks in our brain.

Enforcing Conformity to

Social Norms

Music guides cultures to develop awareness for

expected behaviors, mores, and memes.

Merriam's Functions of Human Musicality

Communication & Symbolic Representation

The elements of music can specifically

symbolize the elements of life.

Some Inherent and Basic Musical Processes (that everyone seems to have)

Preferred music listening elicits emotional responses to reward and pleasure centers of the brain in musically and non-musically trained people (Blood & Zatorre, 2001; Koelsch et al., 2006)

Consistent emotional system responses to consonant and dissonant music among neonates (Perani et al., 2010). Infants and young children show preference for consonance over dissonance (Zentner & Kagan, 1996; Trainor et al., 2002).

Emotional Responses to the music we like:

Validation of

Social Institutions & Religious Rituals

Music can attribute positivity and validity to the institutions, organizations, and phenomena it is associated with.

Facilitating Social Interaction

Music encourages harmonious social behavior between groups and individuals.

Continuity and Stability of Culture

Music is a means of passing on cultural values and heritage (ethnic or group identity). Music provides a productive, stabilizing force for challenging experiences.

Listening, Reproductive, and Productive Musical Abilities In All Humans:

The Elements of Music

Timbre Identification: Infants can recognize their mother's voice within hours of birth, (DeCasper & Fifer, 1980; Beauchemin et al., 2011) and musical timbres within the first week (O'Connell, 2003)

Rhythm pattern identification in 6-12 month olds (Hannon & Trehub, 2005)

Pitch Discrimination: Infants can detect small melodic pitch changes that even adults don't notice (Trainor & Trehub, 1992; Trehub et al., 1999)

Creative behaviors (e.g., spontaneous song generation) are displayed in two to four year-olds (Campbell & Scott-Kassner, 2006; Siu-Lan Tan, 2010)

Inherent Musical Abilities at Birth: Musical behaviors displayed by infants are due to inherent abilities rather than learned skills (Imberty, 2000; Trehub, 2000; Perani et al, 2011)

Universal Musical Abilities for Humans: Responses to musical stimuli and musical activities among babies, children, and adults around the world suggest that basic musical processes may be universal to all humans (Trehub, S., 2000; Hodges, D. 2000; Zatorre, 2005; Perani et al, 2011,) and that infants experience music in a culture-general manner (Trehub et al., 1999).

  • Emphasizing the quality of initial learning experiences via "instant plasticity" (Bangert & Altenmüller, 2003). Remember the "snap-snap-clap"?

  • Singleness of concentration and the Whole-Part-Whole teaching approach: musical elements (e.g., rhythm, timbre, pitch) are processed in specific parts of the brain, yet holistic musical processes (e.g., performance, listening with full awareness) ellicit widespread activity throughout the brain.
  • Audiation and musical imagery (Kraemer et al., 2005; Haslinger et al., 2005)

Neuromusical Research validates many aspects of traditional music pedagogy...

  • Modeling musical behaviors via mirror neurons (Lahav, Saltzman, & Schlaug, 2007; Rizzolatti, 1996).

Improvisation tasks deactivated brain regions associated with:

The Origins of Music?

Some neuromusical substrates...

  • "Assessing whether behaviors conform to social demands"
  • Controlling inhibitions and "inappropriate or maladaptive performance"
  • "Conscious self-monitoring"

Limb & Braun (2008) identified that self-generated musical performance (i.e., productive musical actions like improvisation) are distinctly different than performing memorized or written music.

Although different than performing from memory or while reading music, improvisation brain activity appears to be very similar to other states of altered consciousness (e.g., REM sleep, meditation)

Improvisation tasks activated brain regions associated with:

  • "Broad-based integrative functions"
  • Areas responsible for "combining multiple cognitive operations in the pursuit of higher behavior goals" (i.e., able to combine multiple thoughts and concepts efficiently).

Check out Charles Limb's TED talk!

Pitch Discrimination:

Right auditory cortex (Seung et al., 2005; Schneider et al., 2005)

Rhythm pattern discrimination and beat awareness:

Left cerebral hemisphere (Schneider et al., 2005; Grahn & McAuley, 2009; Di Pietro et al., 2004)

Rhythmic movement (e.g., foot tapping, dancing) and fine-motor skills:

Cerebellum, (Bengtsson, & Ullen, 2006; Brown, Martinez, and Parsons, 2006)

Meter discrimination:

Right cerebral hemisphere (Liegeois-Chauvel et al. 1998, Penhune et al. 1999)

Richard Edwards, Ph.D.

Ohio Wesleyan University

rdedward@owu.edu

Inherent Morphology and Brain Structure

for Musical Processes

Similar brain structures for music: No significant differences in musical brain morphology or markers for musical proficiency were detected in 5 year-olds before beginning in musical training (Norton et al., 2005).

Widespread neuromusical brain activity: Neural activity associated with musical processes has been identified throughout the entire brain (Mazziota, 1988; Parsons & Fox, 1997; Platel et al., 1997; Parsons, 2000; Parsons, 2001; Satoh et al., 2003; Bunzeck et al., 2005; Parsons et al., 2005)

The Morphology and Neural Substrates of Music

(isolated brain regions or neural networks associated with processing musical elements)

Some more neuromusical substrates...

"Muscle memory" and motor functions:

  • Motor cortex, sensorimotor areas (Wilson & Davey, 2002; Parson et al., 2005; Brown, Martinez, and Parsons, 2005)

Planning, judgment, creative decisions, working memory:

  • Frontal lobe, pre-frontal lobe (Popescu, Otsuka, & Ionnides, 2004; Zatorre et al., 1998)

Emotional responses to music activate pleasure and reward areas of the brain:

  • Orbitofrontal cortex and nucleus acumbens are activated during peak emotional responses to preferred music listening (Alfredson et al., 2004; Menon & Levitin, 2005; Khalfa et al., 2005)
  • Anticipation of preferred music listening activates the caudate nucleus (Salimpoor et al., 2011)

Why are neuroscientists so interested in musical processes?

Why would so many experts from multiple areas of research all endorse the idea that basic musical ability is universal to all humans?

Neuroscience (Sacks, 2007; Peretz; 2007)

Psychology (Gardner, 1999)

Archeology (Mithen, 2005)

Anthropology (Merriam, 1964)

Ethnomusicology (Blacking, 1973)

Music education (Hodges, 2005)

What is a basic music process?

Music is Nurtured

The purposes of this presentation:

Musical processes change the structure and

functionality of the brain

  • To summarize the characteristics of brain activity during musical processes.
  • Plus, the ever popular question...
  • To summarize the implications of neuromusical research for inherent music processes (natural) and acquired music processes (nurtured)

Does music make me smarter?

Does music expertise affect non-musical tasks?

Morphological Changes In The Brain Due To Music Training

Humans have critical windows of development and optimal learning periods during childhood for enculturation and learning new abilities

  • Plasticity (Ragert et al., 2004; Pantev et al., 2003; Rauschecker, 2001)

Pruning, Plasticity and Myelination

  • Neural Efficiency (Meister et al., 2005; Haslinger, et al., 2004; Koeneke, et al., 2004; Jancke, Shah, & Peters, 2000)

(Berk, 2004; Johnson, 2001)

A composite image combining the average neural development of the brains from many subjects (Illustration courtesy of Gogtay et al., 2004)

  • Widespread Brain Activity (Altenmuller et al., 2002; Patel & Balaban, 2001; Mazziota, J. (1988)

"Musicians appear to recruit more neural tissue or to use it more efficiently than do nonmusicians"

- Isabelle Peretz and Robert Zatorre

While it is easier for new musical skills to be developed at a young age...

...new musical skills can be learned at any age

Some Neural Correlates of

Musical Processes

Musical Memory

  • Absolute Pitch: Acquired or Retained?
  • Audiomotor integrations (Bangert & Altenmuller, 2003; Haslinger et al., 2005; Brown, Martinez, & Parsons, 2006)
  • Absolute Tempo?
  • Resilient long-term musical memories, despite damage or dementia (Sacks, 2007)

  • Spatial Intelligence (The Mozart Effect?) (Rauscher, Shaw, and Ky, 1993)
  • Language and Singing (Jeffries, Fritz, & Braun, 2003; Hebert et al., 2003; Callan et al., 2006; Schon, Gordon, & Besson, 2005)

/

"one cheek playing"

  • Historical, cultural, and personal significance
  • Musical structure
  • Symbolism and referential meaning
  • Emotional response

/

1. Listening & Audiation:

Understanding heightened by the focused awareness, analysis, and appreciation of music.

When a middle school choir director uses modeling to demonstrate how to improve her students' singing technique, she is engaging their mirror neuron system.

  • Imitation, echo, and rote
  • Reading music notation
  • Following a conductor
  • Performing memorized music
  • Learning through observation utilizes the observer's mirror neuron system.

2. Reproductive Performance:

Performing musical ideas that were originally created by someone else.

  • Improvisation
  • Composition
  • Expression
  • Adjusting and responding to the performance of others

3. Productive Performance:

Creating and performing original musical ideas

  • Self-generated musical performance activates an entirely different neural network pattern than reproductive musical performance

Gabriella Montero improvises on a traditional tune (new to her) at a live concert in Koln, Germany.

Musical speech sounds strengthen social bonds between parent & child ("motherese")

- Fernald & Simon, 1984

- Konner, 1987

Music facilitates cooperative

social groups

- Hagen & Bryant, 2003

Music conveys prosperity and creativity to potential mates. - Darwin, 1871

"auditory cheesecake"

- Pinker, 1997

Music may elicit existential and spiritual validation to thrive or persevere

Music may have been a precursor to language development

- Roederer, 1982

- Mithen, 2007

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