5. The Elements of Style

The habitual use of the active voice, however, makes for forcible writing. This is true not only in narrative concerned principally with action but in writing of any kind. Many a tame sentence of description or exposition can be made lively and emphatic by substituting a transitive in the active voice for some such perfunctory expression as there is or could be heard.

There were a great number of Dead leaves

dead leaves lying on the ground. covered the ground.

At dawn the crowing of a rooster The cock's crow

could be heard. came with dawn.

The reason he left college Failing health compelled him

was that his health became impaired. to leave college.

It was not long before she was She soon repented

very sorry that she had said what she had. her words.

Note, in the examples above, that when a sentence is made stronger, it usually becomes shorter.

Thus, brevity is a by-product of vigor.

As a rule, begin each paragraph either with a sentence that suggests the topic or with a sentence that helps the transition. If a paragraph forms part of a larger composition, its relation to what

precedes, or its function as a part of the whole, may need to be expressed.This can sometimes be done by a mere word or phrase (again, therefore, for the same reason) in the first sentence.

Sometimes, however, it is expedient to get into the topic slowly, by way of a sentence or two of introduction or transition.

In general, remember that paragraphing calls for a good eye as well as a logical mind. Enormous blocks of print look formidable to readers, who are often reluctant to tackle them.Therefore, breaking long paragraphs in two, even if it is not necessary to do so for sense, meaning, or logical

development, is often a visual help. But remember, too, that firing off many short paragraphs in quick succession can be distracting. Paragraph breaks used only for show read like the writing of commerce or of display advertising. Moderation and a sense of order should be the main considerations in paragraphing.

THE ELEMENTS OF STYLE

Strunk and White

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Elementary Principles of Composition

Place the emphatic words of a sentence at the end

Humanity has hardly advanced in fortitude since that time, though it has advanced in many other ways.

Since that time, humanity has advanced in many ways, but it has hardly advanced in fortitude.

This steel is principally used for making razors, because of its hardness.

Because of its hardness, this steel is used

principally for making razors.

The proper place in the sentence for the word or group of words that the writer desires to make most prominent is usually the end.

Place the emphatic words

of a sentence at the end

Keep related words together

In summaries, keep to one tense

Keep related words together

Omit needless words

He noticed a large stain in the rug He noticed a large stain

that was right in the center. right in the center of the rug.

You can call your mother in London For just two dollars you can

and tell her all about George's call your mother in London

taking you out to dinner for just and tell her all about George's

two dollars. taking you out to dinner.

New York's first commercial New York's first commercial

human-sperm bank opened Friday human-sperm bank opened

with semen samples from eighteen Friday when semen samples men frozen in a stainless steel rank. were taken from eighteen men.

The samples were then

frozen and stored in a

stainless steel tank.

The position of the words in a sentence is the principal means of showing their relationship.

Confusion and ambiguity result when words are badly placed.The writer must, therefore, bring

together the words and groups of words that are related in thought and keep apart those that are not so related.

Avoid a succession of loose sentences

Omit needless words

Avoid a succession

of loose sentences

An unskilled writer will sometimes construct a whole paragraph of sentences of this kind, using as connectives and, but, and, less frequently, who, which, when, where, and while, these last in nonrestrictive senses.

A writer who has written a series of loose sentences should recast enough of them to remove the monotony, replacing them with simple sentences, sentences of two clauses joined by a semicolon, periodic sentences of two clauses, or sentences (loose or periodic) of three clauses— whichever best represent the real relations of the thought.

Many expressions in common use violate this principle.

the question as to whether whether (the question whether)

there is no doubt but that no doubt (doubtless)

used for fuel purposes used for fuel

he is a man who he

in a hasty manner hastily

this is a subject that this subject

Her story is a strange one. Her story is strange.

the reason why is that because

The fact that is an especially debilitating expression. It should be revised out of every sentence in which it occurs.

owing to the fact that since (because)

in spite of the fact that though (although)

I was unaware of the fact that I was unaware that (did not know)

Who is, which was, and the like are often superfluous.

His cousin, who is a member of the same firm

His cousin, a member of the same firm

Trafalgar, which was Nelson's last battle

Trafalgar, Nelson's last battle

This rule refers especially to loose sentences

of a particular type: those consisting of two clauses, the second introduced by a conjunction or relative. A writer may err by making sentences too compact and periodic. An occasional loose sentence prevents the style from becoming too formal and gives the reader a certain relief. Consequently, loose sentences are common in easy,unstudied writing.The danger is that there maybe too many of them.

Vigorous writing is concise. A sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no

unnecessary sentences, for the same reason that a drawing should have no unnecessary lines and a machine no unnecessaryparts.This require snot that the writer make all sentences short, or avoid all detail and treat subjects only in outline, but that every word tell.

In summaries, keep to one tense

Chance prevents Friar John from delivering Friar Lawrence's letter to Romeo. Meanwhile, owing to her father's arbitrary change of the day set for her wedding, Juliet has been compelled to drink the potion on Tuesday night, with the result that Balthasar informs Romeo of her supposed death

before Friar Lawrence learns of the nondelivery of the letter.

In presenting the statements or the thought of someone else, as in summarizing an essay or reporting a speech, do not overwork such expressions as "he said," "she stated," "the speaker added," "the speaker then went on to say," "the author also thinks." Indicate clearly at the outset, once for all, that what follows is summary, and then waste no words in repeating the notification.

In notebooks, in newspapers, in handbooks of literature, summaries of one kind or another may be indispensable, and for children in primary schools retelling a story in their own words is a useful exercise. But in the criticism or interpretation of literature, be careful to avoid dropping into summary. It may be necessary to devote one or two sentences to indicating the subject, or the opening situation, of the work being discussed, or to cite numerous details to illustrate its qualities. But you should aim at writing an orderly discussion supported by evidence, not a summary with occasional comment.

In summarizing the action of a drama, use the present tense. In summarizing a poem, story, or

novel, also use the present, though you may use the past if it seems more natural to do so. If the summary is in the present tense, antecedent action should be expressed by the perfect; if in the past, by the past perfect.

Use definite, specific, concrete language.

Prefer the specific to the general, the definite

to the vague, the concrete to the abstract.

A period of unfavorable weather set in.

It rained every day for a week.

He showed satisfaction as he took

possession of his well-earned reward.

He grinned as he pocketed the coin.

Make the paragraph

the unit of composition

Headline

Use the active voice

The paragraph is a convenient unit; it serves all forms of literary work. As long as it holds together, a paragraph may be of any length — a single, short sentence or a passage of great duration.

If the subject on which you are writing is of slight extent,or if you intend to treat it briefly, there

may be no need to divide it into topics.

"The habitual use of the active voice, however, makes for forcible writing."

Put statements in positive form

Put statements in positive form.

Make definite assertions. Avoid tame, colorless, hesitating, noncommittal language. Use the word not as a means of denial or in antithesis,never as a means of evasion.

Use the active voice

Choose a suitable design and hold to it

This rule does not, of course, mean that the writer should entirely discard the passive voice, which

is frequently convenient and sometimes necessary.

The dramatists of the Restoration are little esteemed today.

Modern readers have little esteem for the dramatists of the Restoration.

The first would be the preferred form in a paragraph on the dramatists of the Restoration, the second in a paragraph on the tastes of modern readers.The need to make a particular word the subject of the sentence will often, as in these examples, determine which voice is to be used.

A basic structural design underlies every kind of writing. Writers will in part follow this design, in

part deviate from it, according to their skills, their needs, and the unexpected events that

accompany the act of composition. Writing, to be effective, must follow closely the thoughts of the writer, but not necessarily in the order in which those thoughts occur. This calls for a scheme of procedure. In some cases, the best design is no design, as with a love letter, which is simply an outpouring, or with a casual essay, which is a ramble. But in most cases, planning must be a deliberate prelude to writing.The first principle of composition, therefore, is to foresee or determine the shape of what is to come and pursue that shape.

A sonnet is built on a fourteen-line frame, each line containing five feet. Hence, sonneteers know exactly where they are headed, although they may not know how to get there. Most forms of composition are less clearly defined, more flexible, but all have skeletons to which the writer will bring the flesh and the blood. The more clearly the writer perceives the shape, the better are the chances of success.